• 


LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

PRESENTED  BY 

ANN    GUEST 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

TO  THE  DEATH  OF 

SCHUBERT 


BY 

JOHN   K.  PAINE,  Mus.D. 

LATE   PROFESSOR   OF    MUSIC    IN    HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


BOSTON  AND  LONDON 

GINN  AND  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

1907 


COPYRIGHT,  1907 
BY  GINN  &  COMPANY 


ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 


77.10 


gfte   gtfttnacum   jprtgg 

GINN   &  COMPANY  •   PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


__ 

UNIVERSITY  Oi<  CALIFORNIA 


SAISTA  BARBARA 


PREFACE 

During  the  last  few  years  of  his  life  Professor  Paine  fre- 
quently expressed  the  wish  that  his  lectures  on  the  History  of 
Music,  to  which  he  had  devoted  much  care  and  thought,  might 
be  published,  and  with  a  view  to  the  fulfillment  of  this  wish, 
he  had  had  the  lectures  covering  the  period  to  the  death  of 
Schubert  typewritten  and  had  begun  the  revision  of  this  mate- 
rial for  the  printer.  The  remainder  of  the  work  existed  only 
in  the  form  of  manuscript  notes  and  had  not  received  the 
same  careful  treatment  which  had  been  given  to  the  earlier 
portion.  It  was  therefore  decided  to  omit  the  later  lectures 
in  accordance  with  what  it  was  thought  would  have  been  the 
desire  of  Professor  Paine  himself.  The  title  has  been  made 
to  fit  the  abbreviated  form  in  which  the  book  appears. 

The  editor,  whose  chief  qualification  for  his  task  is  a  deep 
love  for  Professor  Paine  and  a  slight  knowledge  of  ancient 
musical  instruments,  consented,  only  with  reluctance,  to  the 
request  of  Mrs.  Paine  that  he  should  see  the  book  through 
the  press.  His  work  has  consisted  largely  in  verifying  names 
and  dates,  and  in  making  such  changes  in  form  and  style  as 
he  could  feel  reasonably  sure  Professor  Paine  would  himself 
have  made.  The  editor  is  also  responsible  for  the  form  in  which 
the  title  appears  and  for  most  of  the  marginal  notes.  He 
wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  Professor  J.  D. 
M.  Ford  and  to  Professor  G.  L.  Kittredge  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, who  have  assisted  him  in  reading  the  proof  and  have 
aided  him  with  many  important  suggestions,  and  particularly 
to  the  latter,  whose  invaluable  advice  has  been  as  generously 
given  as  it  was  freely  asked. 

ALBERT  A.  HOWARD 


CONTENTS 


PART  I  — ANCIENT  AND   MEDIEVAL   MUSIC 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.   THE  Music  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  ....  3 

II.   EARLY  CHURCH  Music 25 

III.  POLYPHONIC     Music:      ORGANUM,     DISCANT,     AND 

FAUXBOURDON 40 

IV.  TROUBADOURS,  MINNESINGERS,  MINSTRELS,  ETC.      .  53 
V.   Music  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS 63 

VI.   THE  ITALIAN  MASTERS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  78 

VII.   VENETIAN  MASTERS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  .  91 

VIII.    Music  IN  GERMANY 99 

IX.   Music  IN  ENGLAND 110 

PART   II  — ORIGIN   OF   DRAMATIC   MUSIC 
OPERA  AND   ORATORIO 

X.   ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA 117 

XI.    PROGRESS  AND  SPREAD  OF  THE  OPERA 132 

XII.   ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  141 

XIII.    ITALIAN  MASTERS  OF  SINGING 158 

XIV.    OPERA  IN  FRANCE 168 

XV.    OPERA  IN  ENGLAND 176 

XVI.   GERMAN  OPERA  AT  HAMBURG 181 

XVII.   INSTRUMENTS  AND  INSTRUMENTAL  Music    ....  190 

XVIII.   HANDEL  AND  BACH  —  HAYDN 214 

XIX.   GLUCK 245 

XX.   MOZART 253 

XXI.   BEETHOVEN 266 

XXII.   SCHUBERT 285 

INDEX       305 

v 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


PART  I 
ANCIENT  AND  MEDIEVAL  MUSIC 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS 

The  history  of  music  presents  to  the  student  peculiar 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  tracing  the  gradual  development  of 
the  art  from  its  obscure  beginnings  in  remote  antiquity  to  its 
culmination  in  our  own  time.  The  monuments  of  ancient 
architecture  and  sculpture  and  the  books  of  early  poetry, 
which  have  so  long  outlived  the  nations  that  produced  them, 
are  fit  memorials  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  these  arts ;  but 
we  are  unable  to  reproduce  ancient  music  from  the  few 
reputed  specimens  at  hand,  or  the  theoretical  treatises  of 
ancient  authors.  It  is  easy  to  account  for  this  want  of  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  music  of  primitive  times. 

Music,  as  compared  with  poetry,  requires  a  far  more  com- 
plex system  of  written  signs  in  order  to  note  faithfully  every 
phase  of  thought  and  emotion  as  expressed  through  the  mani- 
fold combinations  of  musical  tone.  Ages  must  have  passed 
away  before  even  the  rudest  notation  could  be  invented.  This 
tardy  development  of  the  art  also  corresponds,  historically, 
with  the  growth  of  our  moral  and  spiritual  nature,  and  as 
music  is  the  most  emotional  and  mystical  of  the  fine  arts,  so 
it  stands  out  prominently  in  history  as  identified  with  Chris- 
tianity. Yet  music,  apparently,  is  as  old  as  the  world,  and 
must  have  been  born  with  speech  itself.  If  we  turn  to  wholly 
uncivilized  men,  we  observe  a  natural  love  of  music,  as 
exhibited  in  their  rude  songs  and  dances. 

3 


4  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Earliest  The  earliest  music  was  undoubtedly  vocal,  and  long  pre- 

ceded the  invention  of  musical  instruments.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  rhythmical  element  in  music  soon  aroused 
the  attention  of  primitive  men,  and  led  to  the  invention  of 
the  lowest  class  of  instruments,  like  the  drum,  tambour,  and 
castanets,  which  served  merely  to  intensify  the  rhythmical 
effect  in  dancing  and  singing.  This  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  decided  step  in  musical  progress  ;  for  the  invention  of 
such  instruments  was  the  result  of  reflection ;  whereas  the  first 
rude  unaccompanied  singing  was  as  spontaneous  as  speech. 

The  next  step  would  naturally  lead  to  the  invention  of 
certain  wind  instruments,  suggested  possibly  by  the  singing 
of  the  birds,  the  sound  of  falling  water,  or  the  whistling  wind, 
or  by  experiments  in  blowing  on  the  crooked  horn  of  an 
animal.  This  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the  flute,  Pan's 
pipe,  and  the  horn.  The  imitation  of  sounds  in  nature  may 
likewise  have  given  rise  to  stringed  instruments  like  the  harp, 
lyre,  and  cithara.  A  Greek  myth  relates  that  while  Mercury 
was  walking  for  pleasure  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  his  foot 
accidentally  struck  against  a  tortoise  shell,  across  which  some 
dried  tendons  were  stretched.  This  blow  produced  a  musical 
sound  which  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  the  lyre. 

Music  in  It  would  far  exceed  the  limits  set  for  these  lectures  to 

attempt  to  give  an  account  of  the  music  of  uncivilized  races 
of  men ;  neither  have  we  the  time  to  examine  the  musical 
record  of  old  nations  like  the  Chinese,  Indians,  Arabians,  and 
Persians.  We  find  these  more  or  less  civilized  people  in  the 
possession  of  a  variety  of  musical  instruments,  of  a  tonal  system 
of  scales  and  keys,  and  of  a  kind  of  notation.  These  character- 
istics are  likewise  true  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  and 
other  people  of  pre-Hellenic  culture.  Classical  Greece  was 
the  first  land  where  music  was  cultivated  for  its  own  sake. 
Hitherto  it  had  held  a  subordinate  rank,  and  was  used  chiefly 
to  regulate  the  steps  of  the  dance,  to  heighten  the  joys  of  the 
festival,  and  to  aid  the  rites  of  religion ;  it  was  also  practised 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND   ROMANS  5 

for  its  supposed  medicinal  qualities.  But  the  Greeks,  with 
their  wonderful  love  and  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  honored 
music  as  one  of  the  highest  arts. 

Apollo,  the  god  of  light  and  inspiration,  who  announced  to 
men  the  infallible  will  of  Zeus,  was  not  only  a  prophetic  but 
a  musical  god.  As  the  leader  of  the  Muses  he  was  repre- 
sented inhuman  form,  — the  embodied  ideal  of  young  Greece, 
and  the  model  of  singers  and  musicians. 

The  world  of  the  gods  resounded  with  divine  music,  and  it 
was  the  gift  of  the  gods  to  men.  Orpheus,  the  heroic  son  of 
the  Muses,  charmed  with  his  song  the  rocks,  the  trees,  and 
wild  animals,  and  moved  even  the  merciless  gods  of  Hades 
with  the  power  of  his  lyre.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  music 
for  the  first  time  in  history  attained  a  complete  artistic  devel- 
opment. It  is  evident,  from  the  attention  devoted  to  the  sub- 
ject by  the  greatest  philosophers  of  antiquity,  that  this  art 
acted  powerfully  on  the  Greeks,  and  that  its  external  position 
was  higher  even  than  that  of  architecture  or  of  sculpture. 
Music  was  regarded  by  them  as  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
the  state.  They  gave  the  word  the  most  extended  signifi- 
cance :  the  name  "  music  "  comprehended  not  only  the  art  of 
sounds,  but  also  poetry,  dancing,  oratory,  philosophy,  astron- 
omy, and  grammar. 

The  history  of  Greek  music  may  be  divided  into  three  great  Periods  of 
periods.     The  first  embraces  the  obscure,  half-mythological  ^eeVnt°P~ 
age  ;  the  second  commences  with  the  Dorian  migration  about 
a  thousand  years  before  Christ,  and  closes  about  the  time  of 
the  Peloponnesian  War,  four  centuries  before  Christ.    This 
long  epoch  witnessed  the  development  and  culmination  of  Greek 
music,  and  the  names  of   the   great  musicians,  Terpander, 
Sappho,  Arion,  Pythagoras,  Pindar,  Simonides,  Phrynis,  Timo- 
theus,  and  others,  testify  to  the  high  state  of  excellence  which 
the  Greeks  had  attained  in  the  lyric,  heroic,  and  dramatic  styles. 

The  third  and  last  period,  from  the  time  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian War  till  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  was 


6  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

rich  in  musical  theorists  like  Aristoxenus,  Didymus,  Euclid, 
Ptolemy,  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Plutarch.  The  music  of  this 
epoch,  however,  lost  its  former  simple  and  noble  character- 
istics. The  mere  technics  of  the  art  gained  the  ascendency ; 
instrumental  music  was  practised  separately  from  poetry  ; 
brilliant  virtuosos,  singers,  and  performers  on  the  cithara, 
flute,  and  lyre  became  common.  In  this  manner  the  true  aim 
of  Greek  music  was  lost,  and  its  glory  was  destined  to  fade 
away.  The  various  forms  of  Greek  music  may  be  classified 
according  to  the  chronological  order  of  their  development.  In 
the  earliest  times  were  sung  the  religious  hymns  of  the  priests  ; 
the  Homeric  age  abounded  in  epic  ballads  and  recitals  of  the 
rhapsodists ;  this  was  succeeded  by  the  age  of  the  lyrists  and 
great  musicians ;  and  finally  came  the  culminating  epoch  of 
the  drama,  in  which  all  styles  of  music  —  recitative,  lyric,  and 
dramatic  —  reached  their  full  and  harmonious  development. 

The  wonderful  euphony  and  flexibility  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage generated  music  spontaneously,  and  poetry  and  music 
sprang  from  the  same  source  —  poet  and  musician  were  one. 
These  two  arts  were  so  interwoven  that  the  history  of  the 
one  cannot  be  pursued  satisfactorily  without  intimate  refer- 
ence to  the  other. 

Styles  of  The  Greeks  had  two  styles  of  singing,  recitative  and  arioso. 

singing  Y^  former  was  a  kind  of  chant  or  recital  used  chiefly  in  the 
declamation  of  epic  poetry.  This  recitative  was  limited  to 
a  few  tones,  and  was  held  strictly  subordinate  to  the  quantity 
of  the  syllables  and  the  rhetorical  accent  of  the  words.  The 
other,  more  melodious  style,  was  likewise  dependent  on  the 
rhythmical  and  metrical  structure  of  the  verse,  but  greater 
freedom  characterized  it  in  the  movement  and  modulation  of 
the  tones ;  in  this  respect  it  approached  more  nearly  to 
modern  melody. 

The  simple,  recitative  style  was  the  more  ancient ;  its 
particular  class  of  melodies  was  the  so-called  nomes,  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  formerly  hymns  to  Apollo.  In 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  7 

earlier  times  the  nomes  were  of  great  simplicity ;  they  prob- 
ably held  the  same  relation  to  later  Greek  melodies  that  the 
old  church  chorals  do  to  modern  airs.  Subsequently  the  nomes 
became  more  varied  and  numerous.  They  had  certain  pecul- 
iarities of  rhythmical  and  tonal  treatment  which  expressed 
particular  national  or  individual  characteristics  of  style.  These 
strongly  marked  features  may  have  given  rise  to  the  name, 
—  from  i/o'/io?  (law),  —  thus  designating  the  strict  rule  of 
melodic  treatment  required  of  the  artist. 

The  chorus  of  the  drama  was  sung  to  the  various  nomes 
which  had  been  handed  down  from  earlier  times.  This 
explains  how  it  was  that  the  great  dramatists  were  able  to 
set  music  to  their  own  poetry  ;  for  as  the  dialogue  was  simply 
recited,  they  had  only  to  give  instructions  what  nomes  or 
well-known  melodies  were  to  be  sung  in  the  chorus.  The 
singing  of  the  chorus  was  accompanied  by  dancing  and  instru- 
mental playing ;  the  rhythm  was  marked  by  the  stamping  of 
heavy  wooden  soles  worn  by  the  coryphaeus,  or  chorus  leader. 

Instrumental  music  was  an  important  auxiliary  of  singing,  instru- 
but  with  the  Greeks  it  never  gained  a  worthy  independence,  "j^1 
as  in  modern  times.  Pure  instrumental  music  was  confined 
to  feats  of  skill  in  solo  playing,  and  though  the  expertness 
which  a  performer  might  show  was  oftentimes  a  matter  of 
astonishment,  this  branch  of  ancient  music  did  not  meet  with 
favor  from  the  most  cultivated  minds.  Plato  denounces  such 
instrumental  music  as  inartistic  and  mere  legerdemain.  Our 
chief  sources  of  knowledge  concerning  ancient  music  are  the 
theoretical  writings  of  Aristoxenus,  Euclid,  Bacchus,  Aristides, 
Didymus,  Ptolemy,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Plutarch,  and  others. 
These  writings  do  not  aim  to  give  descriptions  or  analyses  of 
musical  compositions,  neither  do  they  enter  into  the  doctrine 
of  musical  theory,  but  are  devoted  principally  to  the  discus- 
sion of  general  musical  subjects,  which  the  ancients  sought 
to  justify  and  establish  on  philosophical  grounds.  I  shall  not 
attempt  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the  ancient  theory  of 


8  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

music,  for  it  is  a  subject  requiring  so  much  time  and  study 
that  we  can  only  dwell  for  a  moment  on  its  general  features. 
The  tetra-  The  foundation  of  the  Greek  scale  was  the  tetrachord,  a 
series  of  four  tones  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  interval 
of  a  perfect  fourth.  The  tetrachord  was  diatonic,  chromatic, 
or  enharmonic,  according  to  the  disposition  of  its  intermediate 
intervals.  It  was  diatonic  when  it  consisted  of  two  whole 
tones  and  one  half  tone,  bc-d-e  or  d-ef-g;  it  was  chro- 
matic when  it  contained  two  half  tones  and  a  minor  third 
ascending,  bccjj-e  or  effJJ-a;  and  it  was  enharmonic  when 
two  quarter  tones  rested  on  the  fundamental  note  followed 
by  a  major  third,  bb+c-e,  ee+f-a.  This  quarter  tone,  which 
I  have  indicated  by  +  ,  could  have  been  nothing  more  than 
a  mere  sliding  of  the  voice,  or  manner  of  singing.  There 
is  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  Greeks  had  more  deli- 
cate organs  of  hearing  or  a  more  sensitive  appreciation  of 
musical  intonation  than  we  possess,  and  the  ear  does  not  seem 
to  be  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  recognizing  in  practical 
music  any  finer  distinction  of  sound  than  the  half  tone.  This 
Greek  enharmonic  order,  with  its  quarter  tones,  was  derived 
from  the  old  Dorian  scale  of  Olympus,  in  which  the  third  and 
seventh  were  wanting : 


The  new  scale  was  produced  by  a  simple  sliding  of  the  voice 
between  e  and  f  and  b  and  c,  —  a  manner  of  singing  which 
every  good  judge  will  pronounce  bad. 

The  pentatonic  scale  of  Olympus  was  formed  from  the  same 
intervals  as  the  primitive  Chinese  and  Gaelic  minor  scale,  in 
which  the  fourth  and  seventh  are  wanting  : 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  9 

It  was  probably  introduced  into  Greece  from  Western  Asia 
before  the  Dorian  invasion  or  together  with  it. 

The  diatonic  scale  was  probably  built  up  from  this  Dorian 
scale  of  Olympus.  The  introduction  of  one  tone  is  attributed 
to  Terpander,  who  added  a  seventh  string  to  the  lyre.  The 
Dorian  scale  in  his  day  was  — 

\  3 


The  scale  was  rendered  a  complete  octachord  by  Pythagoras, 
who  supplied  the  fifth,  or  missing  tone,  as  follows  : 


Hypate 

Parhy- 
pate 

Lichanos 

Mese 

Paramese 

Trite 

Paranete 

Nete 

i      I/ 

—  &  — 

<2 

—  1 

1    /9r-i  



2 

ty  

(3.  

- 

}    VMy            ^^ 

f^j 

1 

Lowest 
tone 

Next 
lowest 

Index 
tone 

Middle 

Next  to 
middle 

3d 
tone 

Next  to 
last 

Last 
tone 

The  diatonic  tetrachords  were  of  three  kinds,  —  Dorian, 
Lydian,  and  Phrygian,  called  after  the  several  divisions  of  the 
Greek  people.  The  Dorian  tetrachord  has  the  semitone  at 
the  beginning  of  the  group ;  for  example,  ef-g-a  or  bc-d-e. 
The  Lydian  tetrachord  has  the  semitone  at  the  end ;  as, 
c-d-ef  or  g-a-bc.  The  Phrygian  tetrachord  has  the  semi- 
tone in  the  middle  ;  as,  d-ef-g  or  a-bc-d. 

From  these  three  ancient  diatonic  tetrachords  sprang  the 
whole  system  of  Greek  scales.  They  were  combined  in  an 
ascending  or  descending  order,  and  were  either  conjunct  or 
disjunct  as  they  were  required  to  complete  the  octachord  : 

i.   Conjunct  2.    Disjunct  


There  were  nine  octave  groups,  or  diatonic  scales,  formed  in  Scales 
this  manner,  each  one  being  composed  of  five  whole  tones 
and  two  half  tones,  as  in  our  modern  scales,  which  were  taken 


10 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


from  the  Greek  system.  Each  octave  group  differed  from  the 
others  in  the  disposition  or  order  of  the  half  tones.  The 
Dorian  octave  group  extended  from  E  to  e,  the  Phrygian 
from  D  to  d,  and  the  Lydian  from  C  to  c ;  each  was  attended 
by  two  relative  scales  whose  keynotes  were  placed  a  fourth 
below  or  a  fifth  above  the  keynote  of  the  principal  scale.  The 
Dorian,  Phrygian,  and  Lydian  scales  were  generally  com- 
posed of  two  disjunct  tetrachords,  as  follows : 
Dorian  Phrygian 


V              i        I               -—  —      • 

•                       i       I               -  — 

0    i 

fa            J   J    •   r 

-M  j—*—r- 

*—  H 

1  VJJ    J^f  —  t  1  —  j  —  L 
Lydian 

—  *  *  JLJ      r  ! 

i  i 

f\             ***  —     ~" 

~~»                                              .  ^™~~^v 

-X  n  

—  1  1  1  ^=a  H 

-fl)      1 

-J  J  '  r  r~ 

Their  relative  scales  were  composed  of  conjunct  tetrachords, 
making  but  seven  tones,  which  left  one  tone  over,  called  the 
diazeuctic  (dividing  tone),  as  follows  : 

Hyper. ., ^  Hypo. 


When  this  dividing  tone  appears  as  the  highest  tone,  the 
scale  is  called  hyper ;  when  the  dividing  tone  appears  as  the 
lowest  tone,  the  scale  is  called  hypo.  Hyperdorian  is,  there- 
fore, the  scale  a  fifth  above  the  Dorian;  hypodorian,  the 
scale  a  fourth  below  the  Dorian,  thus : 


DISJUNCT 
TETRACHORDS 


Dorian 


CONJUNCT 
TETRACHORDS 

Hypodorian 
(.tfiolian) 


CONJUNCT 
TETRACHORDS 

Hyperdorian 
(Mixolydian) 


Diazeuxis 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS 


II 


Phrygian 


Hypophrygian 
(Ionian) 


Hyperphrygian 
(Locrian) 


As  the    octave  contains  only  seven    different   tones,    there  Extension 
can  be  only  seven  different  octave  groups  in  reality,  instead   c 
of  the  nine  which  are  given  in  the  table.    It  will  be  seen  that 
the  hyperphrygian  corresponds  with  the  hypodorian,  and  the 
hyperlydian  with  the  hypophrygian. 

Until  the  time  of  Aristoxenus  (c.  350  B.C.)  the  scale  con- 
fined itself  to  eight  tones  of  two  disjunct  tetrachords,  called 
the  octachordum  Pythagorae,  as  before  described.  From  this 
octachord  sprang  the  more  extended  system,  with  a  compass 
of  two  octaves  from  A  to  a',  and  consisting  of  five  conjunct 
Dorian  tetrachords,  with  a  fundamental  preparatory  tone, 
called  the  proslambanomenos  (additional  tone)  as  follows  : 


i.  Hypa-     2 

Meson,       3.  Synem- 

4.  Diezeug-      5.  Hyperbo- 

ton, 

middle 

menon, 

menon,               laeon, 

lowest 

conjunct 

disjunct             highest 

s'            — 

I'bi  -*--f=- 

n    <^r 

"-    ^     ~f^ 

-£)-.  1  —  1     I    »/  •    f 

1 

\j  i  ' 

*     1                  1                II 

&     «g     *  —  ' 

1 

(M)  ^ 

r  i      '     hi 



^      8va 

lower 

K;      —         ^d    f* 

ffi       T>      t"1* 

?      H   'D    Z 

^C       h 

-    ~  *'      H  ^d    Z 

it  f  Si  f 

l:l  -  *i  i 

i  HI  II   ^'  i  ? 

i»w13SI)2"           'ft     — 
..     r*^33                      '"^fljP 

a  >      2.    S     n>"       3.  S      »" 

II  ?  I  *  ?i  - 

g  g    5-     5  •• 

„        (O1"  *  S        2!    ••     Jl                  "   co      S.     .'.     2.        C-   .'.      w 

~8    S      D  Sf 

p-    ^ 

i- 

.       P-     S3                0-   3       !* 

(B                             fD        P 

o3    8      S3 

3 

*             *    S 

a  «    «•«•      x    ai 
»  2                  » 

"-    DO 

w              o   "S 

**     S.  S  S  •-!•         ^                  g 

°        S  rt               tr                             U 

0                          0 
tr1                     rr- 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  in  order  to  preserve 
the  intervals  of  the  Dorian  tetrachord,  which  has  a  semitone 


1 2  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

between  the  first  two  tones,  it  was  necessary  to  repeat  two 
tones,  c  and  d,  in  the  tetrachords  3  and  4,  as  follows : 
3  4 


Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  two  of  the  apparent  eighteen 
tones  appear  twice,  so  that  there  are,  in  reality,  but  sixteen 
different  tones  in  this  double  octave  scale.  This  was  called  the 
perfect,  immutable  system.  It  resembles  closely  our  modern 
minor  scale.  We  find  it  in  use  in  the  time  of  Euclid  (300  B.C.). 
This  system  includes  all  the  sounds  within  the  ordinary  com- 
pass of  men's  voices. 

The  Greeks  transposed  this  system  through  all  the  semi- 
tones, so  that  there  were  twelve  different  keys,  as  in  modern 
music,  but  there  appeared  to  be  fifteen,  three  being  repeated. 
Of  these,  five  were  principal  keys,  having  their  stations,  that 
is,  their  fundamental  tones,  in  the  middle  of  the  compass,  each 
within  a  semitone  of  the  other  :  they  were  the  Dorian,  D  ;  the 
Ionian,  D$ ;  the  Phrygian,  E ;  the  ./Eolian,  F  ;  the  Lydian,  F$. 
The  different  character  of  the  modes  and  the  pitch  of  key 
at  which  a  melody  was  sung  had  an  ethical  meaning  to  the 
Greeks,  which  is  difficult  for  us  to  appreciate. 

Knowledge  There  is  no  convincing  proof  that  the  Greeks  had  any 
of  harmony  practical  knowledge  of  harmony,  or  music  in  different  parts, 
beyond  the  most  limited  meaning  of  the  term ;  for  the  ratios 
of  the  intervals  of  musical  sound  made  by  Pythagoras,  through 
the  divisions  of  the  monochord  —  an  instrument  which  he 
invented  for  this  purpose  —  did  not  distinguish  the  difference 
existing  between  a  large  and  a  small  whole  tone,  as  the  modern 
system  does  ;  accordingly,  the  major  third  was  too  large,  and 
the  minor  third  was  too  small,  to  be  in  good  tune.  This  was 
likewise  the  case  with  the  major  and  minor  sixths  ;  the  result 
was  that  the  third  and  sixth  were  classed  among  the  dissonant 
intervals.  As  no  satisfactory  harmony  can  exist  without  the 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  13 

use  of  the  major  and  minor  thirds  and  sixths,  all  dissonant 
intervals  such  as  the  second,  seventh,  etc.,  were  of  no  prac- 
tical value  in  Greek  music,  except  as  the  successive  tones  of 
a  melody. 

It  remained  for  modern  Europeans  to  discover  the  hidden 
beauty  of  discords,  when  used  in  combination  with  concords 
according  to  rules  founded  on  acoustical  principles.  This 
definition  of  dissonant  intervals  reduced  Greek  music  to  the 
narrow  limits  of  the  consonance  of  the  unison  and  octave ; 
probably  no  other  intervals  were  used  except  the  fourth  and 
fifth,  touched  sparingly  in  the  instrumental  accompaniment. 

The  word  "  harmony,"  however,  was  used  by  the  Greeks  to  Greek 
designate  the  congruity  or  harmonious  relation  of  the  parts  Of  harmony 
of  a  thing  to  its  whole,  or  even  the  harmonious  relation  of  two 
distinct  things  one  to  the  other,  as  we  sometimes  use  the 
expression.  The  special  application  of  the  word  which  they 
made  to  music  was  to  indicate  every  melodious  order  of  tones, 
whether  of  the  most  limited  or  the  most  extended  form ;  the 
name  "  harmony  "  comprised  even  the  various  single  parts,  or 
elements,  which  severally  contributed  to  the  total  effect  of 
their  music.  Thus  it  signified  the  arioso  style  ;  tonal  modu- 
lations ;  the  diatonic,  chromatic,  and  harmonic  elements  ;  the 
various  keys  and  octave  groups  ;  in  short,  everything  that 
held  the  legitimate  relation  of  the  parts  of  a  thing  to  the 
whole. 

Unison  music,  if  prolonged,  grows  very  monotonous  and 
tiresome  to  modern  ears.  We  crave  the  rich  effects  of  har- 
mony, and  the  superiority  we  claim  for  our  music  on  this 
score  may  stand  in  the  way  of  our  just  estimation  of  the 
worth  of  ancient  unison  singing.  We  may  well  believe  that 
the  chorus  of  the  Greek  tragedy  must  have  exercised  a  won- 
derful power  over  its  hearers  through  the  absolutely  correct 
manner  in  which  it  was  performed;  a  unison  of  which  we 
have  no  conception,  for  it  is  only  possible  under  similar  con- 
ditions. The  Hebrews  and  other  old  nations  must  likewise  have 


14  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

known  something  of  such  a  pure  unison.  In  the  fifth  chapter 
of  Second  Chronicles  we  read  :  "  The  trumpeters  and  singers 
were  as  one,  to  make  one  sound  to  be  heard  in  praising  and 
thanking  the  Lord."  Perhaps  the  mere  physical  effect  of 
massive  unison  singing  may  be  imagined  from  the  account 
given  by  Josephus  of  a  performance  before  King  Solomon  of  a 
band  of  two  hundred  thousand  singers  accompanied  by  forty 
thousand  harps,  forty  thousand  sistra,  and  two  hundred  thou- 
sand trumpets,  making  four  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
musicians  in  all ! 

We  are  sure  that  the  Greeks  had  no  melody  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  term,  for  in  their  so-called  melopceia,  or  art  of 
melody,  the  strains  were  held  subservient  to  the  rhythm  and 
meter  of  the  word ;  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  modern  canti- 
lena, or  air,  the  syllables  are  made  to  conform  in  a  large 
measure  to  the  free  movement  of  the  tones  and  to  equal 
divisions  of  time. 

"  Even  though  single  melodies  of  the  Greeks,"  says  Ambros, 
"  were  called  by  particular  names,  there  is  no  good  reason 
for  believing  that  as  music  they  had  any  stamp  of  individual- 
ity to  distinguish  them  one  from  another,  or  to  give  them  any 
great  variety.  It  was  not  so  much  the  flow  of  melody  which 
won  the  admiration  of  the  auditors  as  the  refinement  of 
expression  in  the  declamation  of  the  same.  When  the  singer 
appeared  before  the  public  it  did  not  weigh  so  much  what 
he  sang  as  how  he  sang.  He  was  a  musical  declamator,  and 
what  he  executed  appeared  almost  like  an  effusion  of  sudden 
inspiration,  or  a  free  improvisation." 

The  oldest  specimen  of  Greek  music  extant  is  the  melody 
of  a  part  of  the  first  Pythian  ode  of  Pindar.  It  was  alleged 
to  have  been  discovered  by  Kircher  (1650)  in  the  library  of  a 
monastery  near  Messina.  Since  his  day,  search  has  been  made 
for  the  original  manuscript,  but  with  no  success,  and  doubt 
has  been  thrown  on  the  genuineness  of  the  melody.  Other 
specimens  of  ancient  music  are  three  hymns  —  to  Calliope, 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  15 

Nemesis,  and  Apollo.  The  hymn  to  Nemesis  is  by  Mesomedes, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  in  the  second  century.  The 
other  two  hymns  were  written  by  Dionysius,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  in  the 
fourth  century.  Consequently  these  specimens  are  not  relics 
of  the  classical  period  of  Greek  music,  like  the  Pindaric  ode, 
but  were  written  when  the  old  music  had  died  out.  They 
were  brought  to  light  by  Vincenzo  Galilei,  father  of  the  cele- 
brated astronomer.  He  discovered  them  in  a  library  at 
Rome,  and  first  made  them  known  in  1581,  but  was  unable 
to  decipher  them.  Burette,  the  French  academician,  was 
more  successful.  Subsequently  a  number  of  critics  and 
scholars,  including  Father  Martini,  Marpurg,  Forkel,  Burney, 
Fetis,  and  Friedrich  Bellermann,  have  given  their  own  ver- 
sions of  the  music  of  these  relics.  As  important  variations  in 
the  rhythm  and  measure  characterize  these  attempts  to  repro- 
duce, or  at  least  to  approximate  the  original  music,  consider- 
able doubt  is  thrown  over  the  whole  matter.  Bellermann, 
however,  is  now  generally  accepted  as  the  most  reliable 
authority  on  the  subject. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  even  a  feeble  idea  of  the  effect  of 
Greek  music  from  these  decipherments,  for  in  the  transposi- 
tion into  our  modern  tonal  system  they  must  have  been 
greatly  modified  and  modernized.  However,  the  Greek  nota- 
tion, or  semeiography,  answered  the  purposes  of  their  music. 
It  consisted  of  over  a  hundred  characters,  —  letters  of  the 
alphabet  in  various  positions,  —  which  represented  the  pitch 
but  not  the  length  of  the  tones. 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS  OF  THE  GREEKS 
The  most  prominent  stringed  instrument  of  the  Greeks  was  stringed 

instru- 
ments 


the  lyre.    Other  names  given  to  this  class  of  instruments  were  mstn: 


phorminx,  cithara,  magadis,  sambyke,  chelys  (Latin  testudo), 
barbiton,  psalterion,  simicon,  epigonion,  etc.  Some  of  these 
instruments  were  of  Egyptian  and  Chaldean  origin.  The  lyre 


1 6  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

class  of  instruments  and  the  aulos  (flute)  were  the  chief  instru- 
ments employed  by  the  Greeks  in  their  classical  declamatory 
music.  The  lyre  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  instruments. 
Apollo  is  represented  in  plastic  art  holding  the  lyre  in  his 
hands.  The  word  "lyre  "  (\vpa)  does  not  occur  in  Homer; 
whereas  the  cithara  (tciQapis)  and  the  phorminx  (<j>dpfjuyj;)  are 

Develop-       mentioned  by  him.    The  lyre  had  only  four  strings  originally. 

tyre  '  Terpander  (700  B.C.)  increased  the  number  of  strings  to  seven. 

The  scale  consisted  of  two  conjunct  Dorian  tetrachords  : 

~=£ 


i 


In  the  time  of  Pythagoras  (600  B.C.)  an  eighth  string  was 
added  to  the  lyre,  thus  completing  the  octave.  We  owe  this 
eight-stringed  lyre  to  the  Egyptians.  Its  scale  consisted  of 
two  disjunct  Dorian  tetrachords  : 


.,              f3             ~&~           T-.          "1 

-CV  •=  fi>  — 

—  f2  F 

:  E  

-A  1  

II 

f^-r-f 

=1=  —  E 

1  

41 

Several  centuries  later  a  third  conjunct  tetrachord  was  added, 
making  the  ten-stringed  lyre. 

The  cithara  differed  from  the  open-stringed  lyre  in  having 
a  wooden  body  which  served  as  a  resonator,  whereby  the  tone 
was  enriched.  This  and  the  other  lyre  instruments  were  often 
played  with  a  short  staff  made  of  ivory,  quill,  or  metal,  held 
in  the  right  hand,  and  used  in  plucking  the  strings.  One  of 
the  most  prominent  of  the  lyre  class  was  the  magadis,  which 
had  twenty  strings,  enabling  the  performer  to  play  in  octaves  ; 
this  was  called  'magadizing.  The  sambyke  was  very  much  like 
the  magadis.  The  epigonion  had  forty  strings, — a  doubling 
of  the  twenty-stringed  magadis.  Its  tone,  therefore,  was  much 
stronger.  Chelys  and  testudo  are  merely  the  Greek  and 
Latin  names  of  the  tortoise,  used  to  designate  the  lyre  with 
reference  to  its  origin. 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  17 

The  chief  wind  instrument  of  the  Greeks  was  the  aulos  Wind 

instru 
ments 


, —  a  name  applied  to  a  variety  of  tubes,  or  pipes,  in  1] 


which  the  air  column  vibrated  by  means  of  the  breath  of 
the  player.  There  were  three  types  :  (i)  the  pipe  which  was 
sounded  by  blowing  across  the  open  end,  or  an  open  hole  in 
its  side ;  (2)  the  pipe  which  had  a  reed  mouthpiece  inserted 
at  one  end  ;  (3)  the  kind  in  which  the  sound  was  produced  by 
pressing  the  lips  against  the  open  end  of  the  tube,  thus  form- 
ing a  natural  reed  without  a  mouthpiece.  These  instruments 
had  finger  holes,  in  order  to  produce  the  diatonic  and  chro- 
matic scales.  The  first  type  may  be  termed  a  flute  ;  the  second, 
a  kind  of  oboe,  inasmuch  as  it  employs  a  double  reed.  All  of 
these  instruments,  however,  had  a  tube  of  cylindrical  bore, 
like  the  modern  clarinet.  Some  of  them  may  have  employed 
the  single  reed,  like  the  clarinet,  but  most  of  them  had  the 
double-reed  (oboe)  mouthpiece.  Both  single  and  double  pipes 
were  used,  though  with  few  exceptions  the  works  of  ancient  art 
show  a  pair  of  pipes.  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  reliefs  also 
show  the  double  pipe  almost  exclusively.  "  In  deciding  how  The  double 
the  musician  performed  on  his  two  pipes  at  once  there  plpe 
are  three  possibilities  to  be  considered  :  he  may  have  pro- 
duced the  same  tone  simultaneously  on  both  pipes  in  unison ; 
he  may  have  produced  tones  separated  by  an  octave  ;  or  he 
may  have  played  the  melody  on  one  pipe  and  an  accompani- 
ment in  accord,  with  smaller  intervals  than  the  octave,  on  the 
second."  It  is  probable  that  this  last  method  of  playing  on 
the  two  pipes  by  one  performer  was  the  one  practised,  for  it 
was  a  wholly  useless  difference  for  one  pipe  to  be  longer  than 
the  other  in  case  the  pipes  were  to  be  sounded  in  unison. 
Moreover,  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  keep  the  pipes  in  per- 
fect tune  with  each  other  in  unison  playing.  In  performing  on 
double  pipes  the  longer,  Phrygian,  pipe  was  held  in  the  left 
hand,  and  played  the  melody.  The  shorter  pipe  was  held  in 
the  right  hand,  and  played  the  accompanying  harmonic  inter- 
vals,—  probably  the  fourth  and  fifth.  But  possibly  in  the 


1 8  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

music  of  the  orgiastic  worship  of  Cybele  and  of  Bacchus,  the 
Phrygian  pipe,  held  in  the  left  hand,  played  the  accompanying 
part  above  the  melody  of  the  shorter  pipe,  and  sometimes 
droned  below  it.  "  In  performing  on  the  double  pipe  a  great 
deal  of  pressure  was  exerted  by  the  breath  on  the  cheeks 
and  lips,  and  to  relieve  this  pressure  the  performer  made 
use  of  a  bandage,  passing  over  the  mouth  and  cheeks,  and 
provided  with  holes  through  which  the  mouthpieces  of  the 
instruments  could  be  passed."  1 

Pitch  and  Aristoxenus  (350  B.C.)  enumerates  five  classes  of  pipes, 
ptpte°fthe  snort  and  l°ng>  with  reference  to  the  pitch  of  each  instru- 
ment. He  gives  the  range  of  a  single  pipe  as  two  octaves  and 
a  fifth.  The  entire  range  of  these  five  classes  was  more  than 
three  octaves,  corresponding  closely  with  the  compass  of  the 
human  voice  —  from  bass  to  soprano.  Greek  writers  state 
that  three  different  kinds  of  pipes  were  used  for  the  three 
different  scales,  —  Dorian,  Phrygian,  and  Lydian,  —  until 
Pronomus  improved  the  instruments  so  that  all  three  scales 
could  be  played  on  the  same  pair  of  pipes.  His  achievement 
was  so  much  admired  by  his  countrymen  that  a  statue  was 
raised  in  his  honor  beside  that  of  their  great  Epaminondas. 
This  perfect  aulos  was  used  in  the  Pythian  contests.  The 
ancient  pipe,  held  horizontally  in  playing,  with  the  lips  applied 
to  an  embouchure,  was  of  Libyan  origin.  It  is  the  prototype 
of  the  modern  flute.2 

Though  the  lyre,  in  all  its  varieties,  was  the  ideal  instru- 
ment for  the  service  of  the  Greek  drama  and  all  forms  of 
poetry,  yet  the  aulos,  or  flute,  held  the  next  position  in  the 
estimation  of  the  people.  It  was  played  on  various  public 
occasions,  —  at  festivals,  funerals,  banquets,  and  at  the 

1  This  account  of  the  aulos  is  cited  from  Professor  A.  A.  Howard's  article 
in  the  Harvard  Studies,  Vol.  IV. 

2  Musical  writers  generally  apply  the  name  "  flute  "  to  all  kinds  of  ancient 
pipes  indiscriminately.    The  proper  designation  for  pipes  with  oboe-reed  or 
clarinet-reed  mouthpieces  is  aulos;  to  those  blown  through  the  open  end  of 
the  tube  or  through  an  embouchure  on  the  side,  the  name  "  flute  "  applies. 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  19 

Pythian  games,  —  also  as  an  accompaniment  in  the  chorus 
of  the  drama  and  other  declamatory  vocal  music.  A  number 
of  flute  virtuosos  arose  who  were  highly  honored.  The  instru- 
ments were  greatly  improved  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
famous  flute  player  Ismenias  of  Thebes  is  said  to  have  paid 
no  less  than  fifteen  hundred  dollars  for  a  pair  of  flutes.  In  the 
time  of  the  Persian  War  (fifth  century  before  Christ)  flute  play- 
ing became  a  part  of  the  training  of  boys.  Bceotia  was  the  land 
of  flutes.  Athens,  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  cultivated  flute 
playing.  The  Spartans  employed  the  flute  to  lead  chorus 
singing,  and  it  was  the  instrument  of  the  battlefield.  But 
Plato  and  Aristotle  held  flute  music  in  contempt,  as  less  suited 
than  that  of  the  lyre  to  accompany  the  words. 

Other  wind  instruments  of  the  Greeks  were  the  trumpet, 
horn,  and  syrinx,  or  Pan's  pipe.  The  syrinx  was  formed  of 
seven,  eight,  or  nine  short  hollow  reeds  fixed  together  in  grad- 
uated lengths  by  wax,  so  as  to  produce  the  scale.  The  lower 
ends  of  the  reeds  were  either  closed  or  open  ;  the  upper  ends 
were  open,  and  were  played  on  by  the  mouth.  It  was  used  by 
shepherds.  The  Greek  hydraulos,  or  water  organ,  was  sug- 
gested by  the  syrinx.  The  Greeks  had  also  a  number  of  instru- 
ments of  percussion,  —  cymbals,  drums,  sistrum,  and  the  like. 
These  had  a  prominent  place  in  the  music  at  the  festivals  of 
Dionysus. 

Pure  instrumental  music  did  not  stand  high  in  the  estima-  Descriptive 
tion  of  Greek  philosophers,  yet  certain  descriptive,  or  "pro-  mental 
gramme,"  forms  of  music  were  popular  two  or  three  centuries  music 
before  the  Christian  era,  at  the  time  when  Greek  art  was  in 
its  decline.    Strabo  and   Pollux  describe  a   Pythian  instru- 
mental nomos  in  five  divisions,  or  movements,  which  aimed  to 
represent  the  contest  of  Apollo  with  the  dragon.    After  a 
prelude,  or  introduction,  Apollo  chooses  the  place  of  battle ; 
in  the  next  movement  he  calls  the  dragon  to  the  fight ;  then 
the  battle  is  represented  by  trumpets,  flutes,  etc.,  in  iambics, 
with  the  gnashing  of  the  monster's  teeth  in  his  death  agony 


20 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Music 
highly 
esteemed 
by  the 
Greeks 


—  a  realistic  effect  produced  by  the  shrill  syrinx  and  short 
runs  of  the  flutes.  In  the  final  movement  Apollo  celebrates 
his  victory  by  a  godlike  dance.  The  orchestra  consisted  of 
flutes,  citharas,  trumpets,  drums,  and  the  syrinx.  This  first 
symphony,  or  symphonic  poem,  was  composed  by  Timosthenes, 
a  ship  captain,  who  lived  nearly  three  hundred  years  before 
Christ.  He  may  be  dubbed  the  Berlioz  or  Richard  Strauss  in 
the  field  of  Greek  programme  music.  Plato  said  of  mere 
instrumental  music  that  one  can  find  no  definite  meaning  in 
it ;  but  that  was  before  the  time  of  the  Pythian  symphonic 
poem  of  Timosthenes. 

Music  among  the  Greeks  held  not  only  an  exalted  position 
as  compared  with  the  other  arts,  but  assumed  a  political  and 
ethical  significance,  and,  moreover,  was  considered  to  be  of 
great  symbolic  importance  to  astronomy.  The  Pythagoreans 
believed  that  God  regulated  all  things  according  to  harmony. 
The  seven  planets  of  ancient  astronomy  were  supposed  to  give 
out  in  sublime  harmony  the  tones  of  the  seven-stringed  lyre, 
which  was  tuned  to  the  seven  degrees  of  the  Dorian  scale,  as 
follows : 

Moon        Mercury        Venus        Sun        Mars       Jupiter        Saturn 
E  F  G  A  B  C  D 

Plato  and  other  philosophers  gave  earnest  attention  to  this 
subject,  and  the  speculations  of  the  early  Christian,  mediaeval, 
and  modern  writers  with  regard  to  the  so-called  music  of  the 
spheres  testify  to  the  fascination  which  this  grand  concep- 
tion has  for  the  mind,  and  would  almost  justify  belief  in  its 
existence  to-day. 

The  remarkable  political  and  ethical  significance  attached 
by  the  Greeks  to  music  is  shown  in  the  statements  of  her 
great  philosophers.  It  is  related  that  in  primitive  times  the 
laws  of  state  were  sung  to  music.  Plato  declared  that  the 
introduction  of  new  keys  would  be  attended  with  great  danger 
to  the  whole  state,  for  the  keys  could  not  be  changed  without 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  21 

affecting  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  country.  This  influence 
of  their  music  for  good  or  evil  can  readily  be  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  Greece  was  never  the  centralized  state  of  a 
united  nation,  and  that  the  several  branches  of  the  people 
had  their  individual,  peculiar  customs  and  tastes,  as  well  as 
their  own  characteristic  melodies  and  keys.  Such  marked 
contrasts  of  tribal  music  would  naturally  awaken  the  most 
powerful  associations  in  the  minds  of  the  refined  and  sensitive 
Greeks. 

We  read  in  Plato  that  "  the  mixed  Lydian  and  the  hyper-  Character 
lydian  melodies  are  plaintive  and  wailing  compositions,  and 
must  be  discarded,  as  they  are  unfit  even  for  virtuous  women,  modes 
much  more  for  men.  Lydian  and  Ionian  melodies  are  effemi- 
nate and  convivial.  These  are  called  '  lax  modes,'  and  there- 
fore should  not  be  employed  in  the  training  of  soldiers.  The 
best  music  is  not  that  which  gives  the  most  pleasure,  but 
that  which  is  acceptable  to  the  noblest.  Music  should  ever 
hold  to  the  principle  that  its  true  object  is  to  represent  or 
imitate  the  good,  the  noble,  and  the  worthy.  We  should, 
therefore,  not  judge  of  music  merely  as  to  its  agreeableness, 
but  seek  that  music  which  has  a  likeness  to  the  goodness  it 
represents." 

Similar  opinions  as  to  the  moral  worth  of  music  were  held 
by  Aristotle,  who  says  that  its  highest  calling  is  to  exert  a 
good  influence  on  the  character.  The  Greeks  united  with  in- 
struction in  religion  instruction  in  poetry,  music,  and  dancing, 
under  the  general  name  of  the  art  of  the  Muses,  or  music  ; 
and  gymnastics  held  the  next  place  to  music  in  the  education 
of  the  young.  "  Many  hold  the  opinion,"  says  Plato,  "  that 
gymnastics  is  merely  for  the  education  of  the  body,  and 
music  for  the  education  of  the  soul.  Those  who  devote  them- 
selves exclusively  to  gymnastics  become  too  rough  and  hard, 
and  those  who  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  music  become 
too  soft  and  mild.  Therefore  music  and  gymnastics  are  not 
for  the  soul  and  body  respectively,  but  for  the  soul,  —  for  the 


22  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

two  virtues  of   Wisdom   and    Courage,  —  to    put    them  in 
harmony." 

Music  at  Even  the  Spartans,  who  were  more  warlike  and  patriotic 

parta  tha.n  art-ioving,  did  not  neglect  music  :  the  intellectual  side 
of  their  education  was  represented  wholly  by  musical  training. 
The  Spartan  youth  learned  to  sing,  and  play  the  cithara,  not 
for  the  sake  of  the  music  itself,  but  for  its  educating  influ- 
ence upon  mind  and  character.  The  Spartan  warriors  were 
led  to  battle  to  the  sound  of  flutes  and  citharas.  Terpander 
quelled  a  sedition  in  Sparta  by  the  power  of  his  singing.  He 
raised  the  patriotic  ardor  of  his  hearers  to  such  a  pitch  that 
they  forgot  their  quarrel  and  were  eager  to  march  to  battle 
against  their  common  enemy. 

These  few  extracts  from  the  musical  opinions  of  the 
greatest  philosophers  of  antiquity  show  that  the  ancient  esti- 
mation of  music,  as  an  indispensable  means  of  moral  and 
mental  education,  has  never  been  surpassed  in  modern  times. 
In  fact,  there  is  no  modern  people,  with  the  exception  per- 
haps of  the  Germans,  who  have  shown  an  equal  appreciation 
of  the  true  significance  of  this  art.  It  is  true  that  Greek 
music  included  several  arts  under  the  name,  yet  the  music  of 
the  modern  mass,  oratorio,  and  opera  is  associated  with  noble 
poetry.  If  we  are  behind  the  Greeks  in  our  estimation  of  the 
ethical  worth  of  music,  the  art  of  sounds  itself  has  reached  a 
development  in  the  modern  world  of  which  the  Greeks  had  no 
conception.  With  us  it  has  become  an  independent  art.  It 
matters  not  how  intimate  its  modern  alliance  with  poetry 
may  be,  the  chief  interest  of  a  mass,  oratorio,  or  opera 
centers  in  the  music.  Moreover,  modern  instrumental  music 
has  attained,  in  the  symphony,  a  height  which  may  be  called 
the  climax  of  the  art  when  considered  according  to  its  strict 
aesthetic  significance. 

But  while  we  do  justice  to  the  greatness  of  our  music,  we 
must  not  fall  into  the  error  of  underrating  the  excellence  of 
ancient  music,  as  have  many  writers  and  musicians.  The  few 


MUSIC  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS  23 

fragments  at  hand  may  not  give  us  an  exalted  idea  of  its 
merits,  neither  can  we  reproduce  Greek  music  from  the 
scanty  accounts  of  ancient  theorists.  We  may  be  sure,  at  all 
events,  that  Greek  music,  like  Greek  sculpture,  was  distin- 
guished by  its  clear  and  harmonious  beauty  of  form ;  and 
so  far  as  music  can  be  called  plastic,  the  term  may  be  applied 
to  that  of  the  Greeks.  It  was  the  growth  of  centuries  of 
cultivated  civilization,  during  which  the  sensuous  and  intel- 
lectual sides  of  the  art  were  developed  into  a  complete, 
organic  whole. 

About  a  century  and  a  half  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  Music 
Greece  became  a  Roman  province,  and  all  the  treasures  of  at  Rome 
art,  even  its  artists,  musicians,  and  scholars,  were  drawn 
toward  Rome,  the  capital  of  the  world.  Before  this  period 
Roman  music  must  have  been  very  simple  in  character.  We 
read  of  singing  at  religious  ceremonies,  at  funerals,  and  at 
banquets,  and  the  words  of  an  old  song  of  the  Arval  Brothers 
are  preserved  in  an  inscription.  The  songs  were  usually 
accompanied  on  the  double  pipe,  which  was  also  used  at  sacri- 
fices. The  trumpet  under  various  names  was  used  for  military 
signals.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  while  Roman  names  are 
known  for  the  different  wind  instruments,  no  such  names 
for  stringed  instruments,  if  we  except  testudo, — an  obvious 
translation  from  the  Greek,  —  are  known  to  us,  while  the 
name  for  music  itself  is  of  Greek  origin.  With  the  influx  of 
Greek  musicians  a  new  era  was  introduced.  But  although 
the  Romans  patronized  and  encouraged  art  and  artists,  they 
remained  mere  imitators  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  splendor  of 
Greek  music,  art,  and  learning  was  already  fading  away.  The 
love  of  the  Roman  people  for  the  cruel  and  brutal  shows  of 
the  amphitheater  incapacitated  them  for  appreciating  fully 
the  religious  character  and  poetical  beauty  of  the  classical 
Greek  tragedy,  as  embodied  in  the  great  dramas  of  jEschylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  The  dramatic  interest  of  the 
Romans  centered  in  the  comedy,  in  which  authors  like 


24  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Plautus  and  Terence  showed  great  talent.    They  were  also 
passionately  fond   of  choral  pantomimes,  often  wanton  and 
lascivious  spectacles  with  licentious  dances.    Both  vocal  and 
instrumental  music  were  prominent  in  these  performances. 
Greek  Greek    musicians    in   Rome  devoted    themselves    to    solo 

musicians  instrumental  playing,  and  singing  with  cithara  accompani- 
ment. This  citharodic  style  prevailed  under  the  Empire  until 
the  sixth  century  of  our  era,  and  held  a  prominence  in  the 
private  life  of  the  Romans  analogous  to  that  of  the  song 
(Lied]  with  piano  accompaniment  in  modern  times.  Its  most 
brilliant  period  was  during  the  time  of  the  emperors,  and 
terminated  with  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  Among  the 
noted  Grseco-Roman  musicians  were  Tigellius,  protege  of 
Augustus  and  Nero,  Dionysius,  and  Mesomedes,  friend  of 
Hadrian,  whose  hymn  to  Nemesis  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. Until  the  third  century  citharodic  singing  was  purely 
Hellenic ;  in  the  fourth  century  it  was  grafted  on  the  Chris- 
tian church,  but  without  instrumental  accompaniment. 


CHAPTER   II 

EARLY  CHURCH  MUSIC 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  early  church  borrowed  Earliest 
most  of  its  music  from  the  East.  The  sacred  music  of  the 
Hebrews  gave  to  the  music  of  the  new  era  its  holiness,  while 
the  superior  art  of  the  Greeks  bestowed  upon  it  form  and 
beauty.  The  Greek  scales  were  the  foundation  of  the  medi- 
aeval and  modern  scales.  The  spiritual  life  born  of  Christian- 
ity led  ultimately  to  the  development  of  a  more  profound, 
more  inward,  musical  experience.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  the  old  music  haunted  the  minds  of  those  men  whose 
faith  was  superior  to  suffering  and  death,  and  who  were 
exhorted  by  St.  Paul  to  sing  psalms  and  spiritual  songs, 
making  melody  in  their  hearts  to  the  Lord.  The  first 
Christians  found  safe  hiding  places  from  persecution  in  the 
catacombs  and  other  dark  underground  rooms,  where  they 
could  pursue  their  religious  worship  unmolested.  These 
gloomy  halls  of  the  dead  were  made  bright  with  the  music  of 
the  era.  It  was  probably  simple  unison  song  in  the  style  of 
the  ancient  Jewish  and  Grecian  melody,  but  pervaded  and 
elevated  by  the  intense  fervor  of  Christian  belief. 

During  the  reign  of  Emperor  Constantine,  in  the  fourth 
century,  absolute  toleration  was  granted  to  the  Christians, 
and  at  the  Council  of  Nice  (325)  the  Christian  was  declared 
to  be  the  official  church  of  the  Empire.  Splendid  basilicas 
and  churches  rose  up  like  magic  :  in  the  East,  at  Bethlehem, 
Jerusalem,  and  Constantinople ;  in  Rome,  over  the  grave  of 
Peter.  It  was  not  long  before  music,  as  well  as  all  the  fine  arts, 
found  encouragement  within  the  church.  As  in  the  ancient 
theater  all  the  arts  were  combined  harmoniously,  so  likewise 
in  the  church  they  were  united  to  serve  the  high  purposes 

25 


26  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Antiphonal  of  religion.  Even  at  an  earlier  period  antiphonal  singing  had 
been  introduced.  It  owed  its  origin  undoubtedly  to  the 
responsive  singing  of  Jewish  temple  music,  though  it  is 
attributed  to  Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch  (d.  A.D.  107),  who, 
according  to  the  legend,  heard  with  rapt  delight  choirs  of 
angels  answering  each  other  in  song.  And  this  suggested 
to  him  the  idea  of  having  this  wonderful  celestial  music  imi- 
tated by  the  congregation  of  worshipers.  The  early  Church 
Fathers,  Clemens,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and  others,  felt  special 
interest  in  the  cultivation  of  church  music.  The  first  impor- 
tant step  for  its  advancement  was  taken  in  the  Council  of 
Laodicea  about  365  ;  previously,  music  had  been  unwritten ; 
there  were  no  definite  rules  to  guide  the  singers,  and  the 
rapidly  increasing  number  of  worshipers  found  it  more  and 
more  difficult  to  unite  their  voices  melodiously.  The  Council 
ordered  that  no  person  should  sing  in  the  church  but  the 
authorized  singers  from  their  tribune.  Early  in  the  fourth 
century  Pope  Sylvester  is  supposed  to  have  established  a 
school  of  singing  which  was  soon  followed  by  others.  Flavian, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  Diodorus,  bishop  of  Tarsus,  St.  Basil, 
archbishop  of  Caesarea,  and  Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome, 
were  identified  with  antiphonal  singing. 

Our  knowledge  of  this  early  church  music  is  not  accurate, 
but  we  know,  at  least,  that  it  was  derived  from  Jewish 
temple  music  and  other  Oriental  sources,  as  well  as  from 
Greek  melody.  In  general  the  style  was  ornate ;  it  was  not 
limited  to  the  Greek  practice  of  allotting  only  one  tone  to  a 
syllable,  but  made  free  use  of  melismas  (roulades),  in  which  a 
whole  group  of  notes  were  sung  to  one  division  of  a  word  in 
the  Oriental  style,  and  which  stood  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
simple  word  music  of  the  Greeks.  This  ornate  style  charac- 
terized the  church  music  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Constanti- 
nople, and  Armenia.  In  the  course  of  centuries  it  was 
simplified  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  with  the  adoption  of 
the  official  antiphonary,  or  collection  of  standard  melodies,  in 


EARLY  CHURCH  MUSIC  27 

the  seventh  century,  the  cantus  planus  (plain  chant)  became 
the  standard.  Meanwhile  the  Ambrosian  hymn  arose,  which 
followed  the  simple  and  metrical  form  of  Greek  song. 

St.  Ambrose  (c.  340—397),  bishop  of  Milan,  was  the  founder  Ambrosian 
of  Christian  hymnody  as  well  as  the  promoter  of  church  music  ymi 
in  general.  He  is  known  to  have  written  a  number  of  hymns, 
ten  of  which  are  preserved.  It  is  not  probable,  however,  that 
he  composed  the  melodies  of  these  hymns.  There  is  positive 
proof  that  he  wrote  the  words  of  these  six  hymns  :  "Veni  re- 
demptor  gentium,"  "  Aeterne  rerum  conditor,"  "  Deus  creator 
omnium,"  "Illuxit  orbi,"  "lam  surgit  hora  tertia,"  "Bis  ternas 
horas  explicans."  Internal  evidence  shows  that  the  remaining 
four  are  probably  authentic  :  "  Aeterna  Christi  munera,"  "  O 
lux  beata  trinitas,"  "  Splendor  paternae  gloriae,"  "  Hie  est 
dies  verus  Dei."  These  hymns  are  distinguished  for  their 
noble  simplicity  and  religious  feeling,  both  in  the  words  and 
music.  In  metrical  and  musical  form  they  are  closely  related 
to  the  contemporary  Graeco-Roman  citharodic  songs. 

The  verse  employed  by  Ambrose  is  the  iambic  dimeter 
( J  |  cJ  J  |  cJ  J  |  <-J  J  |  ^J  )•  Each  group  of  four  verses 
forms  a  strophe,  as  in  the  odes  of  Horace.  They  are  com- 
posed in  the  Dorian  (E),  Ionian  (G),  and  yEolian  (A)  modes. 
The  following  Dorian  hymn  will  serve  as  an  example ;  it  shows 
a  decided  affinity  with  the  "  Hymn  to  Apollo  "  by  Dionysius, 
especially  in  the  final  cadence  : 


T*     * 

(2 

"  T 

|              i 

^Z.  —  i 

-4-  — 

—  F 

—  i  

Ae    - 

f3 

—  1  
ter 

—  \- 
-    na 

Chris    -    ti 

mu     -    ne    -   ra           Et 

•      I5""       i*      •*•> 

c\m 

9 

r 

E« 

&     r 

-*•               m 

*•*• 

i 

t 

r 

r            ' 

J 

—  M  

i 

—  P 

mar  - 

*3 

ty  -  rum     vie  -  to 

^         » 

-    ri 

as      Lau  -  des       fe  -  ren  -  tes 

• 

•^ 

sy 

9 

try                          P      * 

•4?-  — 

-f- 

E 

—f    zEE 

-^—  H 

de     -    bi  -  tas      Lae  -  tis       ca  -  na    -  mus    men  -  ti  -  bus. 


28  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

The  rhythm  of  these  original  hymns  rested  on  the  quantity  of 
the  syllables,  as  in  Greek  music.  Later  hymnodists,  Pruden- 
tius,  Mamertus,  Sedulius,  etc.,  used  other  meters,  such  as 
iambic  trimeter  and  trochaic  tetrameter.  These  imitations 
are  as  a  rule  inferior  to  the  original  hymns.  Sixty  of  them 
at  most  have  come  down  to  us,  of  which  not  more  than 
twenty  are  worthy  of  our  interest.  Ambrosian  song  spread 
rapidly  throughout  the  Empire,  and  was  cultivated  for  cen- 
turies, almost  to  the  present  day. 

Besides  these  beautiful  hymns  there  are  the  Ambrosian 
chants,  in  which  the  recitative  style  prevails,  as  in  the  modern 
chant.  The  voice  held  to  one  tone  mostly,  and  took  a  melo- 
dious turn  only  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  or  verse.  They  were 
sung  usually  to  the  psalms  of  the  ritual,  and  were  derived  from 
ancient  Jewish  temple  music.  The  "  Te  Deum  laudamus  " 
has  been  attributed  to  St.  Ambrose,  but  neither  the  words 
nor  the  music  were  written  by  him.  Recent  investigations 
prove  that  the  hymn  is  of  Oriental  origin.1 

The  hymns  of  Milan  had  a  sphere  outside  the  Roman  office. 
It  is  true  that  many  churches  and  monasteries  included  Am- 
brosian hymns  in  the  office  of  the  Hours,  but  their  adop- 
tion in  the  Roman  Church  was  far  from  being  universal. 
The  Council  of  Braga  (563)  excluded  from  the  sacred  office 
songs  in  verse  and  all  texts  not  taken  from  the  Scriptures. 
The  local  rites  of  Rome  did  not  receive  the  Ambrosian  hymns 
until  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh  century.  Some  au- 
thorities maintain  the  opinion  that  Ambrosian  church  music 
in  general  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Gregorian  music, 
except  so  far  as  the  hymns  and  chants  which  we  have  de- 
scribed are  concerned. 

Gregorian       The   Ambrosian  hymns   were  based   on   the  versification 

music*1        anc*  Poetical  meter  of  the  words,  like  Greek  music,  whereas 

the  Roman  style  was  unmetrical  and  made  free  use  of  me- 

lismas   (roulades),  or  melodic   ornaments.     This  florid  style 

1  See  Riemann,  History  of  Music,  II,  14. 


EARLY  CHURCH  MUSIC  29 

characterized  the  music  of  the  Eastern  churches,  but,  in  the 
Roman  Church,  as  we  have  seen,  the  cantus  planus  had 
become  the  standard.  This  Gregorian  song,  or  chant,  con- 
sists of  slow,  simple,  unison  tones  of  nearly  equal  length, 
like  the  modern  choral ;  however,  some  use  is  made  of  musical 
rhythm.  Its  distinguishing  feature,  as  compared  with  Greek 
metrical  music,  is  the  grouping  together  of  tones  to  one  syl- 
lable. Even  a  whole  passage  is  often  sung  to  one  division  of 
a  word.  This  is  particularly  the  custom  with  respect  to  the 
singing  of  some  important  word,  like  "  Kyrie  "  or  "  alleluia." 
This  idea  was  derived  from  Asiatic  music,  which  has  always 
stood  in  strong  contrast  to  the  word  "  music  "  of  the  Greeks. 

Villateau,  in  his  celebrated  description  of  Egypt,  gives  an 
example  of  curious  music  sung  by  the  Copts,  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  They  sometimes  prolong  a  syllable  to 
an  inordinate  length,  "  gargling"  the  tones  of  an  alleluia  for 
a  full  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  same  practice  exists  in  Judea 
and  other  Eastern  countries.  This  florid  coloring  of  the  tone, 
except  when  carried  to  a  fantastic  extreme,  as  in  the  East,  is 
a  very  important  element  in  music,  and,  through  the  Grego- 
rian song,  laid  the  foundation  for  the  modern  art  of  figuration 
and  counterpoint  ;  for  by  giving  the  tones  sufficient  duration 
and  independence,  —  which  could  not  take  place  so  long  as 
they  were  tied  down  to  prosody,- — it  became  possible  to 
sound  notes  of  different  pitch  simultaneously;  finally  whole 
melodies  could  be  sung  in  harmonic  relation  to  each  other, 
and  this,  under  certain  conditions,  is  nothing  else  than 
modern  counterpoint. 

Gregory  the   Great,  who  occupied   the   pontifical   throne  influence 
from    590  to   604,   has   been   called   from  time  immemorial  ^^^ 
the  founder  and   promoter  of  Roman  Church  music.     It  is   on  Roman 
said    that    he   had   all   the   good   melodies    and   chants,   col- 
lected   and   arranged   in   the   order  of  the  church  calendar, 
written  down  on  parchment ;  and  that  this  antiphonary,  as  it 
was  called,  was  laid  on  the  altar  at  St.  Peter's  and  fastened 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Authorship 
of  the  an- 
tiphonary 


by  a  chain,  to  serve  as  a  standard  for  all  time,  from  which  no 
deviations  were  to  be  permitted,  and  that  from  this  fact  the 
name  cantus  firmus  (firm  song)  was  derived.  Musical  historians 
have  also  held  that  he  founded  a  school  of  music  at  Rome, 
invented  or  arranged  a  system  of  liturgical  music,  introduced 
a  system  of  notation  by  means  of  Roman  letters,  and  increased 
the  number  of  modes  or  scales  to  eight.  But  Gevaert  and 
other  recent  investigators  give  strong  reasons  for  believing 
that  "the  tradition  which  makes  St.  Gregory  the  legislator 
of  the  liturgical  music  and  the  composer  of  the  melodies  of 
the  antiphonary  has  no  historical  basis  or  probability.  It  is 
a  legend  which  originated  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  or 
later,  and  which,  amplified  in  the  course  of  the  ninth  century, 
received  its  definite  form  in  the  celebrated  writing  of 
Johannes  Diaconus  (John  the  Deacon).  It  was  not  generally 
accepted  until  during  the  eleventh  century."  John  the  Deacon 
flourished  about  two  hundred  and  eighty-six  years  after  the 
death  of  Gregory  the  Great,  so  that  his  statements  on  the  sub- 
ject must  be  taken  with  more  than  a  grain  of  salt,  as  he  is 
the  only  ancient  writer  who  considers  Gregory  to  be  author 
of  the  antiphonary.  According  to  Hope,  in  the  writings  of 
Gregory  "  there  is  not  a  single  line,  allusion,  or  hint  of  any 
kind  respecting  the  chant  of  the  Church  or  of  any  antipho- 
nary." Gevaert  asserts  that  the  melodies  of  the  antiphonal 
mass  received  their  definite  form  between  the  accession  of 
Leo  II  (682)  and  that  of  Gregory  II  (715).  Pope  Sergius  I 
(687-701)  was  the  principal  inspirer  of  that  work.  The  official 
antiphonary  had  been  previously  adopted  under  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Agathon  (678-682).  This  question  is  still  the  sub- 
ject of  controversy  among  various  musical  and  ecclesiastical 
writers.  Though  we  may  concede  that  the  antiphonary  did 
not  receive  its  definite  form  before  the  time  of  Gregory  II,  in 
the  eighth  century,  this  does  not  preclude  the  possibility  that 
the  foundation  was  laid  by  the  first  Gregory,  or  in  his  time. 
We  may  well  believe  that  he  gave  his  attention  to  church 


EARLY   CHURCH   MUSIC  31 

music  and  founded  a  school,  inasmuch  as  Pope  Sylvester 
(fourth  century)  preceded  him  in  this  field.  Undoubtedly  the 
so-called  Gregorian  music  was  not  created  by  any  one  man, 
but  grew  up  gradually  in  the  course  of  several  centuries  as 
the  "use  of  Rome."  In  modern  times  it  has  been  modified, 
and  what  is  now  called  the  Gregorian  chant  is  a  hybrid,  and 
has  little  resemblance  to  the  old  music. 

The  antiphonary  was  the  liturgical  choir  book  of  the  Roman 
mass,  which  consisted  of  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  Sanctus, 
Benedictus,  and  Agnus  Dei.  It  also  contained  antiphons, 
graduals,  hymns,  tracts  (sung  during  Lent),  and  offertories 
(sung  during  the  collection  of  alms  in  the  holy  communion). 
The  choir  books,  used  in  the  Seven-Hours  services,  were  the 
"  Psalter,"  the  "  Hymnal,"  the  "  Collect,"  the  "  Lectionary," 
and  the  "  Nocturns  "  (used  at  vespers  on  Sundays  and  certain 
other  days). 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  early  ornate  style  of  sing-  The 
ing  was  gradually  simplified  in  the  Roman  Church  until  the  Gregorian 
adoption  of  the  antiphonary  in  the  seventh  century.  Hence- 
forth the  Gregorian  cantus  planus  was  the  standard  for  many 
centuries.  This  Gregorian  chant  consisted  of  slow,  simple 
unison  tones  of  nearly  equal  length,  like  the  modern  choral. 
It  was  unlike  Greek  music  or  the  Ambrosian  hymn,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  not  sung  to  versified  words.  It  was  unmetrical  and 
unphrased,  usually,  but  in  many  cases  the  monotonous  and 
heavy  whole  notes  were  relieved  by  half-note  and  quarter- 
note  rhythm.  The  following  citation  will  exhibit  the  character 
of  Gregorian  music  : 


m 


li    -    as  o    -    ves       ha       -        be   -   o, 

etc. 


quae    non     sunt      ex  hoc  o  vi  -  li : 


32  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


et  fi  -   et  u        -    num     o  - 


le  et  u  -  nus 


pa    -    stor,      al      -    le       -        -       lu     -     ia. 

Early  The  early  and  mediaeval  church  music  was  based  on  the 

modes  Greek  diatonic -scale  system.  Before  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose 
the  musical  sounds  were  systematized  under  the  name  of  "  au- 
thentic "  (genuine).  They  were  thus  designated  by  the  church 
to  sanction  their  use.  These  four  authentic  modes,  together 
with  the  four  plagal  modes  introduced  later,  were  the  founda- 
tion of  all  church  composition  till  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  authentic  modes  were  at  first  arranged  as  follows  : 

G  A  B  c  d  e  f 

F  G  A  B  c  d  e 

E  F  G  A  B  c  d 

D  E  F  G  A  B  c 

(Beginning  at  D  these  are  no  other  than  the  Greek  octave 
modes,  Phrygian,  Dorian,  hypolydian,  and  hypophrygian.) 
These  four  modes  are  miscalled  the  Ambrosian  modes.  To 
them  were  added  later  the  four  plagal  modes,  erroneously 
ascribed  to  St.  Gregory.  Plagal  means  "slanting,"  and  is 
used  to  designate  such  modes  as  were  derived  or  borrowed 
from  the  authentic  by  simply  beginning  the  order  of  the 
notes  a  fourth  below,  as  follows  :  A  to  A,  B  to  B,  C  to  c,  D 
to  d.  The  authentic  modes  were  distinguished  from  the  plagal 
modes  by  having  their  keynotes  on  the  first  of  the  scale,  as 
in  modern  music.  Melodies  of  the  authentic  modes,  therefore, 
were  of  a  complete,  strong,  and  firm  character,  whereas  the 


EARLY   CHURCH   MUSIC 


33 


plagal  melodies  sought  to  rise  or  fall  into  the  authentic  key- 
note, and  were  softer  and  more  dependent.  The  authentic 
music  proceeded  from  the  keynote  to  the  fifth,  or  from  rest 
to  motion ; 


while  plagal  music  sought  rest  in  the  authentic  keynote,  a 
fifth  below,  or  a  fourth  above  : 


This  intimate  relation  existing  between  the  keynote  and  the 
fifth  is  in  obedience  to  a  natural  law,  and  plays  an  important 
part  in  every  form  of  music. 

Until  the  chromatic  organ  came  into  general  use  in  the  Alcuin's 
church,  these  modes  were  not  transposed  from  key  to  key.   system 
Gregorian  chants  were   necessarily   composed   according   to 
the  limited  scale  and  compass  just  given.    The  first  writer 
who  treats   of  the  church  modes  systematically  is   Flaccus 
Albinus  —  Alcuin  of  York  (d.  804).    He  directed  the  educa- 
tional reforms  of  Charlemagne.    It  is  said  that  Alcuin  was 
the  founder  of  the  University  of  Paris  (790).     His  system 
was  to  place  the  eight  octave  groups  in  the  following  order : 


AUTHENTIC    MODES 


PLAGAL   MODES 
Tone  2 


Tone  i 


Tone  3 


Tone  5   ~- 


Tone   7 


1 


Tone  6 


1  •                                              S[ 

•  i  , 

Z                               f(\\ 

-,£?- 


Tone  8 


34 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


These  modes  were  transposed  into  other  keys,  and  until  the 
eleventh  century,  church  music  was  composed  in  them,  but 
some  secular  melodies  were  not  restricted  to  them. 

The  mediaeval  church  musicians  named  these  modes  after 
the  Greek  modes,  but  misapplied  the  names  entirely,  as  the 
following  comparison  will  show  : 


Greek 


Church 


Dorian 


Phrygian 


Lyclian 


L/                                            <7 

(2 

(^)              •  —  " 

—  — 

n         Phrygian 

Dorian 

Ionian 

V                           & 

fT, 

-= 

Hypolydian        Ionian  Locrian  Mixolydian 


Musical 
notation 


Greek 


Church 


Lydian 


Mixolvdian 


Hypo- 
phrygian 


The  harsh  effect  of  the  tritone,  —  the  three  whole  tones 
between  F  and  B,  —  in  the  church  modes  was  ultimately  for- 
bidden, and,  in  order  to  avoid  it,  one  of  these  two  tones  was 
altered  chromatically,  either  by  putting  B  t2  before  B,  or  by 
raising  the  F  to  F$.  The  so-called  "lyric  Bk"  was  applied 
to  the  keyboard  of  the  organ  at  Winchester,  built  in  the 
tenth  century. 

The  Greeks  used  a  notation  called  semeiography,  which 
gave  the  pitch  of  the  tones  accurately  but  did  not  indicate 
their  value  in  time.  It  comprised  more  than  a  hundred 
characters,  —  letters  of  the  alphabet  erect,  inverted,  or  in- 
clined. In  the  church  this  complicated  and  insufficient 
system  was  ultimately  abandoned.  The  first  seven  letters  of 
the  alphabet  were  substituted  for  the  troublesome  Greek 


EARLY   CHURCH   MUSIC  35 

names  of  the  tones.  The  lowest  octave  was  designated  by 
capital  letters,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G  ;  the  next  octave  by 
small  letters,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  and  the  eleventh  century 
Guido  of  Arezzo  added  double  letters  for  the  third  octave, 
aa,  bb,  cc,  etc. 

Before  Gregory's  time  a  kind  of  notation  was  in  vogue,  Neuma 
quite  different  from  semeiography.  It  was  called  neuma  nota-  notatlon 
tion,  the  name  being  derived  from  the  Greek  word  irvev^a 
(breath).  It  is  not  known  when  this  notation  was  first  intro- 
duced, but  it  was  probably  during  the  period  between  Am- 
brose and  Gregory.  The  only  extant  copy  of  the  antiphonary 
of  Gregory  is  written  in  the  neuma  notation,  a  system  which 
the  great  reformer  may  have  improved.  From  his  day  until 
the  fourteenth  century  it  remained  in  use  in  church  music 
with  few  modifications.  At  the  outset  it  was  a  simple  device 
to  aid  the  singers,  but  gradually  the  number  of  characters 
increased  to  about  thirty.  They  were  horizontal  or  oblique 
lines  and  points,  resembling  the  circumflex,  acute,  and  grave 
accent  marks  of  Greek  writing  of  Alexandrian  times,  which 
period  may  have  given  rise  to  them. 

These  characters  may  be  divided  into  four  classes  :  first, 
signs  that  denote  single  tones,  of  which  I  shall  call  attention 
only  to  \}\Qpunctum  *  and  virga  J  (*,  the  origin  of  our  modern 
notes,  which  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  called  points  (thus 
the  word  "counterpoint"  is  derived  from  punctum  contra 
punctum,  or  point  against  point,  —  note  against  note) ;  second, 
single  signs  representing  two  or  more  tones,  — 


/3 


third,  signs  denoting  a  certain  manner  of  singing,  or  turns,  of 
the  voice,  — 


/        / 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


and  fourth,  signs  that  represent  a  whole  phrase  or  formula  of 
notes,  — 


Improve- 
ments in 
notation. 
Lines 


This  handwriting  did  not  point  out,  nor  give,  the  exact  value 
of  the  notes,  a,  b,  c,  etc.  ;  it  could  only  indicate  in  a  general 
way  to  the  musical  sense  the  raising,  lowering,  sliding,  and 
holding  of  the  sounds. 

Such  a  system  could  be  no  sure  guide  to  the  singers,  and 
many  inaccuracies  arose  to  perplex  them.  Complaints  and 
criticisms  were  made  on  every  side.  John  Cotton  declared 
that  when  one  singer  sang  the  third  or  fifth,  another  tried 
the  fourth,  or  some  other  interval ;  and  when  one  said  in 
dispute,  "  Master  Trudo  taught  me  to  sing  it  thus,"  another 
replied,  "  My  teacher  Salomon  sings  it  quite  differently." 
"  It  is  a  wonder,"  says  Cotton,  "if  their  voices  ever  happen 
to  unite  agreeably,  as  each  one  calls  on  the  name  of  his 
master."  He  concludes  from  this  clashing  of  opinion  that 
there  must  be  as  many  ways  of  singing  as  there  are  masters 
—  which,  unfortunately,  might  be  said  with  some  degree  of 
truth  nowadays.  The  singers  in  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory 
were  not  certain  how  to  begin  a  note,  or  in  what  key  to  sing, 
and  only  by  good  luck  could  they  strike  the  right  interval. 

An  improvement  in  the  neuma  notation  was  made  in  the 
eighth  century  by  Romanus,  a  singer  of  St.  Gall,  who  added 
small  letters  to  the  characters,  which  aided  the  singers  to 
execute  their  notes  more  accurately,  and  superseded  in  some 
degree  oral  teaching.  But  as  the  intervals  were  indicated 
only  approximately,  the  singers  labored  on  nearly  as  much  in 
the  dark  as  before.  The  chief  advantage  of  this  improvement 
was  to  indicate  the  effects  of  loud  and  soft,  and  the  quicker 
and  slower  performance  of  single  tones  and  groups  of  tones. 
But  all  of  these  unsatisfactory  devices  were  set  aside  by  a 
happy  invention  of  an  unknown  person,  —  an  invention  sim- 
pler and  more  capable  of  improvement.  It  was,  to  draw  a 


EARLY   CHURCH   MUSIC  37 

horizontal  line  over  the  text.  This  line  represented  f,  and 
was  the  origin  of  the  modern  F  clef.  All  that  was  written 
above  this  line  indicated  higher  tones  than  f.  In  the  course 
of  time  a  second  line  was  added  to  represent  c,  which  was 
the  origin  of  the  modern  C  clef.  The  f  line  was  colored 
red,  and  the  c  line,  green  or  yellow.  Between  the  two  lines 
the  characters  for  g,  a,  and  b  were  inserted.  Subsequently, 
in  Hucbald's  time,  two  parallel  black  lines  were  substituted, 
on  which  these  intermediate  notes  were  henceforth  written. 
These  four  lines  were  the  origin  of  the  modern  staff.  At  a 
later  period  a  number  of  lines  were  added  to  the  four  until 
as  many  as  fifteen  were  not  uncommon.  The  notes  were  not 
written  between  the  lines  at  this  period,  but  when  this  im- 
provement was  made  the  number  of  lines  decreased,  and  was 
usually  four  or  six  up  to  the  time  when  the  staff  assumed  its 
present  form. 

By  command  of  the  church  the  Gregorian  song  was  intro-   Gregorian 
duced  into  distant  countries.     Pope  Gregory  I  sent  to  Eng- 


land  the  Benedictine  monk  Augustine  with  forty  colleagues,  other  coun- 

tries 

among  whom  were  a  number  of  singers.  Schools  of  singing 
were  founded  by  them  in  monasteries  at  York,  Glasgow,  and 
other  towns.  The  Roman  style  was  taught  in  these  schools. 
Subsequently  Boniface  and  others  went  from  England  into 
Germany  and  introduced  the  Roman  style  there.  In  the 
seventh  century  Pope  Vitalian  sent  two  Roman  singers,  John 
and  Theodore,  into  Gaul  and  Britain  to  turn  the  fast-languish- 
ing song  in  the  monasteries  of  those  countries  back  to  its 
genuine  source.  In  Britain,  especially,  their  efforts  were 
crowned  with  success,  for  it  was  not  long  after  their  advent 
that  the  Gregorian  song  reached  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
in  that  land.  In  the  eighth  century  twelve  singers  were  sent 
to  King  Pepin  in  France,  and  also  to  Germany,  where  heathen- 
ism still  prevailed. 

The  church  found  arduous  work  in  training  the  rough  and 
untutored  natives  of  western  Europe  to  sing.    The  forcible 


Peter  and 
Romanus 


Notker 


38  THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

words  of  John  the  Deacon,  the  biographer  of  Gregory  the 
Great,  well  describe  the  uncultivated  music  of  that  age : 

Among  all  the  people  of  Europe,  the  Gauls  and  Germans  are  the 
least  capable  of  comprehending  the  Gregorian  song  in  its  purity.  It  may 
be  due  to  their  native  wildness  or  because,  out  of  frivolity,  they  always 
insert  something  of  their  own  invention.  Their  rough,  bellowing  voices 
are  incapable  of  modulation,  and  their  intemperate  habits  render  it 
impossible  for  their  hoarse  throats  to  sing  delicate  melodies  properly. 
Their  voices  produce  tones  only  fit  to  be  compared  to  the  clatter  of  a 
heavy  wagon,  and  instead  of  touching  the  feelings  of  the  hearer,  only 
fill  him  with  disgust. 

Charlemagne  gave  his  powerful  encouragement  to  the  culti- 
vation of  music  as  well  as  to  all  art  and  learning.  During  his 
reign  organs  were  introduced  into  western  Europe  from  the 
East.  He  founded  schools  of  singing  at  Metz  and  Soissons, 
and  sacred  music  was  taught  under  his  personal  direction.  By 
his  command  the  songs  of  the  old  bards  were  collected  by 
Einhard. 

In  790  Pope  Hadrian,  at  the  emperor's  request,  sent  two 
Roman  singers,  Peter  and  Romanus,  to  Metz  with  a  correct 
copy  of  the  official  antiphonary.  One  of  the  singers  reached 
Metz,  but  Romanus,  who  was  in  possession  of  the  antipho- 
nary, fell  ill  on  the  way,  and  remained  at  the  monastery  of 
St.  Gall,  near  the  boundary  line  of  Switzerland  and  Italy. 
He  founded  there  a  school  of  singing  which  became  the  most 
famous  of  that  age.  For  centuries  the  superiority  of  this 
school  was  universally  celebrated.  The  antiphonary  is  still 
preserved  there.  Noted  masters  of  this  school  were  Romanus, 
the  founder,  Ratpert,  Salomo,  Tutilo,  Ekkehard,  Labeo,  and 
others.  But  the  most  gifted  of  them  all  was  Notker  Balbulus, 
who  was  distinguished  as  a  composer,  poet,  and  teacher,  and 
more  than  all,  was  one  of  the  most  exemplary  Christians  of 
his  time.  He  developed  a  simple,  popular  song,  called  the 
sequence,  or  prosa,  which  was  a  kind  of  hymn.  His  sequence, 
"  Media  Vita,"  became  famous  all  over  Europe,  and  has  found 


EARLY   CHURCH   MUSIC  39 

a  permanent  place  in  German  church  music,  under  the  name 
of  "  Mitten  wir  im  Leben  sind." 

In  the  Gregorian  age  it  was  demanded  of  every  priest  that  Knowledge 
he  should  understand  the  art  of  singing.    It  was  the  opinion   °*  ™i*ed  Of 
that  no  one  could  teach  philosophy  or  religion  without  pos-  priests 
sessing  a  knowledge  of  music.    This,  however,  too  often  sig- 
nified the  absorption  of  the  entire  life  of  the  scholastic  monk 
in  the  groundless  theories  of  music,  which  may  have  been  pro- 
foundly symbolical,  but  were  hardly  useful,  except,  perhaps,  to 
prepare  European  society  for  a  higher,  more  modern  discipline 
of  the  mind. 

No  one  will  deny  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
been  the  means  of  preserving  many  precious  relics  of  ancient 
art  and  learning.  It  is  through  her  agency  chiefly  that  Greece 
as  well  as  Judea  has  exerted  a  great  influence  in  molding 
the  character  of  modern  civilization.  The  prominence  given 
to  music  in  the  church  from  its  very  foundation  has  rendered 
this  art,  perhaps,  even  more  than  philosophy  the  handmaid  of 
religion.  Although  the  ancient  scales  lie  at  the  foundation 
of  the  mediaeval  and  modern  tonal  system,  the  principal  char- 
acteristics of  modern  music  are  chiefly  due  to  the  genius  of 
the  mediaeval  musicians  of  the  Roman  Church. 


CHAPTER  III 

POLYPHONIC  MUSIC:   ORGANUM,  DISCANT,  AND 
FAUXBOURDON 

Ancients  During   the   Middle  Ages  the  learned   world  was  much 

counter-  °     puzzled  by  the  question  whether  the  ancients  were  acquainted 
point  with  what  we  call  counterpoint.    Eminent  scholars  and  musical 

theorists  ranged  themselves  on  opposite  sides,  and  the  con- 
troversy was  carried  on  for  centuries.  The  affirmative  opinion 
was  maintained  by  some  of  the  most  learned  minds  of  those 
years  and  outweighed,  by  far,  all  contemporary  opposition.  In 
more  enlightened  times  the  negative  opinion  has  prevailed, 
although  it  is  not  shared  by  certain  eminent  scholars,  like 
Bockh  and  Casimir  Richter.  A  majority  of  the  best  musical 
critics  and  historians,  Padre  Martini,  Forkel,  Fetis,  Kiese- 
wetter,  Marx,  Ambros,  Gevaert,  Riemann,  and  others,  have 
proved  beyond  doubt  that  the  ancients  were  profoundly  igno- 
rant of  counterpoint,  which  is  the  sounding  together  of  two  or 
more  different  and  well-defined  voices,  or  melodies,  in  har- 
monic relation  to  each  other.  This  chief  characteristic  of 
modern  music  has  been  the  means  of  the  gradual  development 
of  the  present  tonal  system  of  scales,  keys,  and  musical 
measure  ;  and  harmony  has  become  so  important  to  our  sense 
and  understanding  that  any  composition  existing  without  it, 
at  least  in  the  form  of  accompaniment,  we  can  hardly  tolerate. 
But  while  we  are  so  well  satisfied  with  our  music,  the 
Asiatic  finds  it  disagreeable  and  barbarous.  He  has  no  com- 
prehension of  any  other  than  unison  music,  and  the  sound  of 
two  or  more  simultaneous  parts  appears  to  him  as  mere  noise. 
F6tis  tells  the  story  of  an  Arabian  who,  listening  to  a  French- 
man playing  the  "  Marseillaise  "  on  the  piano,  suddenly  seized 

40 


POLYPHONIC   MUSIC  41 

the  left  hand  of  the  player  with  the  exclamation,  "No,  first 
play  that  melody,  then  you  may  play  these  others."  Niebuhr, 
on  asking  an  Arabian  how  he  liked  European  music,  received 
the  answer,  "  Your  music  is  a  wild,  unpleasant  shouting,  in 
which  no  earnest  man  can  find  any  pleasure."  Could  a  refined 
Greek  musician,  Terpander,  or  Arion,  have  listened  to  a 
modern  symphony,  he  would  probably  have  recognized  noth- 
ing more  than  a  confusion  of  sounds,  void  of  all  meaning. 

We  have  no  knowledge  of  any  attempts  to  use  harmonic  First 
intervals  in  singing  during  the  first  eight  hundred  years  of  harmony 
the  Christian  era.  The  chief  progress  made  in  this  long 
period  was  in  simplifying  musical  meter  by  making  it  more 
independent  of  the  words,  in  arranging  the  compass  of  the 
musical  sounds  into  different  scales,  and  in  adopting  a  kind 
of  notation.  It  was  truly  a  marked  epoch  in  musical  his- 
tory when  the  first  attempts,  however  feeble  and  erroneous, 
were  made  at  harmony.  But  it  is  wholly  unknown  to  whom 
the  honor  of  making  these  first  experiments  belongs.  The 
earliest  notices  of  such  harmonic  singing,  under  the  name  of 
"  organum,"  are  by  the  monk  of  Angouleme  (ninth  century) 
and  Scotus  Erigena  (about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century) ; 
and  the  latter  describes  such  part  music  as  already  in 
general  use. 

The  oldest  examples  known  of  any  such  music  are  con-  Hucbald 
tained  in  the  treatises  of  Isidor,  a  learned  monk,  Otger,  or 
Odo,  of  Provence,  and  Hucbald,  or  Hucbaldus,  of  St.  Amand 
in  Flanders,  who  lived  between  the  years  840  and  930  and 
was  an  earnest  student  of  Greek  music.  In  examples  they 
give,  the  cantus  firmus  or  principal  voice  was  placed  in  the 
tenor,  above  which  was  added  a  second-voice  part,  singing 
the  same  melody  throughout,  four  or  five  notes  higher  ;  some- 
times there  was  added  a  third  voice,  which  ran  with  the 
upper  melody  in  the  octave  beneath  ;  or  again,  by  doub- 
ling the  parallel  fourths  or  fifths  in  the  octave,  four  voices 
were  used. 


42 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


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names,  diaphonia  —  different  sounds,  and  symphonia  —  union 
of  sounds.  The  least  objectionable  kind  of  organum  to 
modern  ears  was  the  so-called  "roaming"  or  "wandering" 
organum.  It  was  composed  in  two  voices  of  parallel  fourths, 
with  a  refreshing  admixture  of  thirds,  seconds,  and  unisons  in 
oblique  and  contrary  motion.  The  fourth  was  the  prominent 
interval.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  dissonant  interval  of  the 
second  should  have  been  introduced. 


Rex    coe    -   li      Do  -  mi  -  ne    ma  -  ris     un  -  di  -   so  -  ni. 
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3443 


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POLYPHONIC   MUSIC  43 

In  this  example  the  fifth  appears  only  once.  These  parallel 
fifths  and  octaves  produce  such  a  frightful  effect  that  we  can 
hardly  conceive  it  possible  that  they  were  ever  used  in  this 
manner.  Kiesewetter,  on  hearing  them  tried,  declared  it 
impossible;  but  Ambros  holds  that  the  organum  was  prac- 
tised by  the  monks  as  a  penance  to  the  ear,  to  counteract 
the  sensuous  charm  of  secular  music  by  something  utterly 
antagonistic.  We  can  hardly  believe  that  the  singers  gen- 
erally followed  out  this  idea  to  the  bitter  end,  but  prefer 
to  think  that,  in  the  improvisations  which  had  now  become 
the  fashion,  they  were  very  economical  in  the  use  of  parallel 
fifths ;  otherwise  Hucbald  could  not  have  recommended  the 
organum  so  heartily,  saying,  "  If  two  or  more  of  you  sing 
this  together  with  measured  gravity,  you  will  find  the  com- 
bination of  intervals  produces  a  very  sweet  and  agreeable 
harmony." 

The  name  "organum"  naturally  suggests  the  belief  that 
the  first  experiments  in  combining  different  intervals  of  sound 
were  made  by  means  of  the  organ.  In  that  age  organs  were 
of  the  most  clumsy  construction.  The  keys  were  so  wide  that 
the  organist  used  his  fists  or  elbows  in  playing.  Under  such 
circumstances  not  more  than  two  notes  could  be  held  down 
simultaneously.  It  may  have  been  the  practice,  for  want  of 
skill,  to  hold  down  a  key  while  the  melody  was  being  sung, 
—  thus  producing  an  harmonic  effect  something  like  the 
droning  of  a  bagpipe.  At  all  events  it  was  by  such  rude  and 
almost  accidental  beginnings  that  the  way  was  opened  for 
subsequent  speculations. 

Hucbald  made  improvements  in  notation  in  the  following  improve- 
manner :  between  the  spaces  of  a  number  of  parallel  lines  he 
inserted  the  words  in  a  higher  or  lower  position,  to  indicate 
the  pitch  of  the  tones,  aided  by  the  letters  T  and  S  (tonus 
and  semitonus)  placed  in  the  margin  to  show  whether  the 
steps  were  tones  or  half  tones.1  Hucbald  applied  the  names  of 

1  Kiesewetter,  Beilagen  der  Niederlandischen  Musik,  Ex.  A. 


44  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

the  Greek  scales  to  the  church  modes,  but  in  a  new 
order :  the  scale  D  .  .  .  d  was  called  Dorian  instead  of 
Phrygian ;  E  .  .  .  e  was  called  Phrygian  instead  of  Dorian ; 
F  was  Lydian ;  G,  mixolydian  ;  A,  ^olian  ;  B,  hypophrygian  ; 
and  C,  Ionian.  These  have  remained  in  use  ever  since  as 
church  modes. 

The  speculations  on  music  of  Hucbald  and  other  learned 
ecclesiastics  of  his  time  did  not  produce  any  immediate  effect 
or  lead  to  reforms  which  extended  much  beyond  the  walls  of 
the  few  monasteries  where  they  passed  their  lives.  The  prac- 
tice of  church  music  was  not  much  influenced  by  the  abstruse 
theories  of  scholars.  Nearly  a  century  elapsed  before  there 
appeared  in  music  any  new  discovery  which  was  worthy  of 
mention.  What  may  have  taken  place  within  the  monasteries 
during  that  time  is  unknown. 

Guido  of  Music  was  promoted  in  the  eleventh  century  by  Guido  of 

Arezzo  (995  P-IO5O  ?),  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the  convent 
Pomposa,  near  Ravenna,  whose  name  subsequently  attained 
a  higher  fame  than  that  of  any  musician  of  mediaeval  times, 
lasting  almost  to  the  present  day.  Guide's  achievements  were 
the  improvement  of  notation  and  the  simplification  of  the 
method  of  teaching  singing.  According  to  his  own  words  he 
had  invented  "  a  new  method  of  teaching  music  by  which  a 
boy  might  make  greater  progress  in  a  few  months  than  a  man 
of  intelligence  formerly  could  in  years."  He  made  this  the 
aim  of  his  life,  and  he  succeeded  so  well  in  teaching  the 
youth  to  read  music  at  sight  that  his  reputation  was  spread 
abroad,  reaching,  at  last,  the  ears  of  Pope  John  XIX,  who 
sent  for  him  in  order  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  his 
system.  The  Pope  treated  Guido  with  kind  attention,  turned 
over  the  leaves  of  his  antiphonary  attentively  and  with  wonder, 
and  did  not  rise  from  his  seat  until  he  could  correctly  sing  a 
verse  that  he  had  never  before  seen ;  thus  accomplishing 
what  he  had  not  believed  possible  when  it  was  reported  to 
him  as  having  been  done  by  others. 


POLYPHONIC   MUSIC  45 

The  method  of  instruction  pursued  by  Guido  has  not  been  Guide's  con- 
tribution 

to  music 


ascertained,  except  in  its  general  outlines.    He  taught  his  * 


pupils  the  tones  and  syllables  from  Pythagoras'  monochord, 
which  played  a  great  role  with  mediaeval  musicians.  Guido 
divided  the  monochord  into  a  scale  of  twenty  tones,  five  more 
than  had  hitherto  been  employed,  making  use  of  the  following 
notation  to  indicate  the  pitch  of  the  separate  tones  : 

TABCDEFGabcdefg    a^C^e 

a  b  c  d  e 

The  double  letters  represented  higher  tones  than  had  previously 
been  in  use.  The  Greek  gamma,  even  before  Guide's  time,  had 
been  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  compass,  evidently  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  capital  G  of  the  octave  above.  The  name 
"gamut"  for  the  modern  scale  is  derived  from  this  source. 
Guido  fixed  the  number  of  lines  on  which  the  notes  were 
written  at  four,  as  has  been  mentioned  above.  Hitherto  they 
had  followed  no  given  number,  but  varied  from  two  to  twenty. 
He  was  the  first  to  write  the  notes  in  the  spaces  as  well  as 
on  the  lines.  Two  lines  were  colored  —  one  red  and  one  green 
—  and  represented  the  clefs  F  and  C  ;  the  other  lines,  D  and 
A,  were  black  : 


Notwithstanding  the  great  advantage  gained  by  this  simplifi- 
cation, the  many-lined  staff  continued  in  use,  both  in  vocal  and 
instrumental  music,  until  the  sixteenth  century. 

Guido  was  not  the  inventor  of  the  modern  notes,  as  some 
have  believed  ;  neither  did  he  use  exclusively  the  points  of  the 
neuma  characters,  which,  as  has  already  been  stated,  were 
the  foundation  of  the  modern  notes.  His  favorite  signs  for 
the  tones  were  the  Gregorian  letters,  but  he  also  used  many 
of  the  neuma  characters,  which  he  gave  a  definite  place  on 
the  staff  to  indicate  precisely  their  pitch.  The  parallel  lines 
were  dispensed  with  when  the  Gregorian  letters  were  employed, 


46  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  were  simply  written  above  the  text,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  following  example  : 


f3 

—  ^  —  j  r~  "'  J     r^     i5* 

^=t= 

lt= 

_|.  ._|     I  ...f    ^ 

:  ^—  -  —  P  —  , 

Qui  tol     -        -        -      lis      pec     -        -     ca       -       ta. 

Generally  only  the  simple  letters  were  written  above  the  text 
without  attempting  to  illustrate  the  upward  or  downward 
movement  of  the  sounds,  as  follows  : 


Soimization       Solmization,  or  the  application  of  the  syllables,  ut,  re,  mi,  fa, 
sol,  la,  to  the  various  notes  is  attributed  to  Guido,  who  may 
have  adopted  them,  though  they  were  not  developed  into  a  well- 
regulated  system  before  the  thirteenth  century.    These  six  syl- 
lables were  taken  from  the  first  words  of  the  lines  of  a  favorite 
Latin  hymn  :     m  queant  laxis     ^sonare  fibris 
Mira.  gestorum      Famuli  tuorum, 
Solve  polluti         Zflbii  reatum, 

Sancte  /ohannes. 

This  served  as  a  supposed  protection  from  hoarseness  and 
colds.  Mattheson,  the  Hamburg  kapellmeister,  says,  "  When 
a  monk  found  himself  hoarse  he  hastened  to  repeat  this  hymn, 
and  then  the  devil  and  superstition  were  at  hand  and  helped 
him  in  a  moment." 

Neither  Guido  nor  his  immediate  followers  did  much  for 
the   advancement    of    harmony.    The    examples    of    Guide's 


POLYPHONIC   MUSIC  47 

organum  differ  from  Hucbald's  :  first,  in  the  occasional  pas- 
sage of  the  cantus  firmus  below  the  counterpoint 1 ;  and 
secondly,  in  the  addition  of  a  type  of  figured  ending  to  the 
cantus  firmus,  or  principal  voice,  while  the  counterpart  holds 
out  its  last  note,  making  a  kind  of  organ  point.  Guido  has 
become  a  mythical  character.  He  has  been  credited  with  far 
more  honor  than  belongs  to  him.  Writers,  particularly  those 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  have  lauded  him  to  the  skies. 
He  has  been  called  the  restorer,  nay,  the  inventor  of  music  ; 
and  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries  have  been  ignored. 
He  was  erroneously  deemed  the  inventor  of  notation,  har- 
mony, the  gamut,  solmization,  the  clavichord,  the  hexachord, 
and  the  harmonic  hand,  — a  practical  aid  to  singers,  by  means 
of  which  they  could  count  the  tones  of  Guide's  scale,  with 
their  solmization,  on  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand. 

In  the  history  of  music  the  twelfth  century  is  an  epoch 
without  names ;  yet  during  this  period  we  mark  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  varied  rhythm  and  exact  measure  in  music  and,  con- 
sequently, the  development  of  the  note.  Undoubtedly  we  owe 
this  remarkable  change  to  the  increasing  influence  of  secular 
music  under  the  universal  sway  of  the  troubadours,  whose 
rhythmical  and  pleasing  melodies  marked  a  strong  contrast  to 
the  grave,  heavy,  and  nearly  equal  notes  of  the  Gregorian  song. 

The  further  growth  of  counterpoint  was  closely  connected  Discantus, 
with  the  metrical,  melodious  style,  and  new  intervals  came 
into  practice.  Besides  the  major  and  minor  thirds  and  sixths, 
the  dissonant  intervals  of  the  second,  seventh,  and  augmented 
fourth  were  introduced  ;  if  not  freely,  as  in  modern  music, 
yet  as  passing  notes.  This  resulted  in  a  kind  of  counterpoint 
called  "  florid,"  because  two  or  more  notes  were  used  against 
one,  as  passing  notes  ;  for  instance, 


1  Ambros,  II,  164,  Ex.  4. 


48 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Such  an  effect  could  not  be  produced  unless  the  notes  were 
sung  in  exact  measurement  of  time.  This  florid  counter- 
point, or  discantus  (different  voices),  as  it  was  called,  was 
used  first  in  secular  music,  but  gradually  worked  its  way 
into  sacred  music,  in  spite  of  opposition ;  yet  it  was  not 
before  the  thirteenth  century  that  it  was  admitted  to  general 
favor.  Before  the  introduction  of  exact  measurement  of  time 
the  music  of  the  church  was  sung  without  strict  regard  to 
the  time  value  of  the  notes.  The  melismas,  or  groups  of 
notes  strung  together,  were  called  "  notae  ligatae,"  or  bound 
notes,  and  were  sung  somewhat  quickly,  the  accent  falling 
generally  on  the  highest  note.  Thus,  — 


Mensural          The  oldest  known  writer  on  this  subject  of  new  notation, 
music.  or  mensura}  music  as  it  is  called,  was  Franco  of  Cologne, 

Cologne  prior  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  at  Cologne  in  1190,  whose 
treatises  are  supposed  to  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
twelfth  century  or  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth.1  Franco 
treats  of  the  various  notes  used  in  mensural  music,  of  which 
there  are  four  kinds,  with  corresponding  pauses  ;  the  duplex 
longa  (or  maxima  as  it  was  called  later),  the  longa,  the  brevis, 
and  the  semibrevis  —  our  modern  whole  note.  Their  appear- 
ance and  relative  value  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Duplex  longa 

Longa     •  ^ 

Brevis    •  •  •  • 

Semibrevis    •••••••• 

tion  ofChar-  Franco's  classification  of    the   different    harmonic  intervals 

monk  in-       agrees  in  the  main  with  that  of  the  present  day.    He  names 
tervals 

1  Theoretical  works  of  Franco  of  Paris  are  also  preserved. 


POLYPHONIC   MUSIC 


49 


three  kinds  of  concords  :  (i)  perfect,  the  unison  and  octave; 
(2)  middle,  the  fifth  and  the  fourth;  and  (3)  imperfect,  the 
major  and  minor  thirds.  Discords  were  either  perfect  —  the 
half  tone,  the  augmented  fourth,  and  the  major  and  minor 
sevenths;  or  imperfect  —  the  major  and  the  minor  sixths. 
His  only  great  error  was  to  classify  the  sixths  with  the 
discords. 

Franco  mentions  several  kinds  of  sacred  and  secular  song, —  Various 
conductus,  cantilena,  motetus  (or  motet),  hoquetus  (ochetus), 
and  rondellus  (or  rondo).  These  compositions  are  generally 
in  three-part  counterpoint.  The  organum,  at  this  time  called 
pure  organum  (organum  purum),  used  rhythmical  counterpoint 
in  the  discant,  as,  for  instance  : 


names  of 
songs 


1 

| 

j  n 

J     !       i          i   i 

-0- 

9*4- 

•   J  J  —  H  —  F? 

H  4 

f^*"' 

—  t*b  —  ^  —  *~ 

—  f)  .     J-*-*-- 

;  —  ± 

1  /                 r*D 

—  . 

1                         ^ 

'&.  •' 

^?  * 

Tenor  '   ^       ' 

-T 

r^- 

T" 

j 

Lj3  u 

Hdzm 

The  conductus  had  no  cantus  firmus;  its  three  or  four  parts 
were  free.  The  rule  of  three-part  composition  was  that  two 
voices  should  always  form  a  consonance,  the  third  voice  using 
intervals  that  would  fit  with  the  other  two.  The  following  is 
the  opening  of  a  conductus  of  Franco's  time : 


^B  —  « 

:    i 

^~. 

-f2-!-  —  a~ 

i 

^> 

P_ 

^_L 

y  r  r     r  r  r 

|«*        1-^       1*" 

'        etc. 

C\j  g 

3  . 

•JJ 

• 

"•••1  

-1 

1 

-- 

)•     [ 

r 

1 

Coussemaker  mentions  several  composers  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  —  Leoninus,  Perotinus,  Petrus,  and  Jean 
le  Grand.  Among  the  contemporaries  of  Franco  were  Johan- 
nes de  Garlandia  and  the  so-called  Pseudo-Beda,  the  unknown 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Rules  for 
use  of  har- 
monic in- 
tervals 


Improvised 
discant 


author  of  a  treatise  on  music  which  appears  also  under  the 
name  of  Aristotle. 

In  England  music  had  long  been  cultivated.  Alfred  the 
Great  is  supposed  to  have  encouraged  both  the  practice  and 
science  of  music,  and  several  writers  draw  the  conclusion 
from  this  supposition  that  mensural  music  flourished  earliest 
in  that  country.  Two  of  the  oldest  writers  on  mensural  music, 
following  Franco,  were  Walter  Odington,  a  Benedictine  of 
Evesham,  about  1240,  and  Hieronymus  de  Moravia  in  France, 
about  1260.  Theoretical  writings  of  Marchettus  of  Padua 
toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  later  by  Johannes 
de  Muris,  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  at  Paris  about  1330,  note 
a  decided  progress  in  harmony  and  measure.  Their  rules  for 
the  use  of  harmonic  intervals  show  that  the  feeling  for  a 
natural,  melodious  treatment  of  the  voices  had  grown  more 
refined,  and  that  they  began  to  comprehend  the  true  nature 
of  combined  concords  and  discords.  They  established  the 
following  rules,  which  in  vocal  music  have  continued  to  be 
observed  with  some  modifications  almost  to  the  present  day. 
First,  two  perfect  concords  —  the  unison,  fifth,  and  octave  — 
must  not  succeed  each  other  consecutively  in  similar  motion ; 
second,  a  composition  must  invariably  begin  and  end  with  a 
perfect  concord;  third,  discords  can  appear  only  as  passing 
notes  and  suspensions,  always  to  be  resolved,  or  followed 
directly  by  a  concord.  Contrary  motion  was  recommended 
as  the  best. 

The  examples  of  harmony  by  Marchettus  and  De  Muris  do 
not  lead  us  to  regard  them,  nor  the  practical  musicians  whom 
they  represented,  as  the  founders  of  modern  counterpoint, 
but  rather  as  guides  to  the  purity  and  correctness  of  its  ele- 
ments. De  Muris  was  the  first  musician,  it  appears,  to  adopt 
the  word  "  counterpoint  "  as  the  name  for  polyphonic  music. 

Before  these  more  correct  teachings  had  exerted  their  full 
influence,  it  was  the  habit  with  clever  singers  to  improvise 
parts  to  accompany  the  principal  melody,  or  cantus  firmus. 


POLYPHONIC  MUSIC  51 

This  was  called  contrapunctum  a  mente,  or  improvised  discant, 
and  was  the  general  practice  in  sacred  and  secular  music.  In 
church  music  it  became  so  offensive  to  good  taste  that  finally 
it  had  to  be  abolished  by  papal  decree.  Von  Nettesheim,  a 
learned  writer  of  the  sixteenth  century,  describes  such  an 
extemporary  performance  as  sounding  unlike  the  singing  of 
human  voices,  but  resembling  rather  the  outcries  of  animals. 
De  Muris  condemns  unskillful  discanters  in  these  words : 
"  If  they  accord,  it  is  by  mere  chance ;  their  voices  wander 
about  the  tenor  or  plain  song  without  rule,  trusting  wholly 
to  Providence  for  their  coincidence.  They  throw  sounds 
about  at  random,  just  as  awkward  people  throw  stones  at  a 
mark,  without  hitting  it  once  in  a  hundred  times." 

The  improvised  discant  was  in  high  favor  in  France,  where 
it  was  commonly  sung  in  three  parts  which  proceeded  simul- 
taneously in  similar  motion,  note  against  note,  always  in  the 
first  inversion  of  the  triad,  the  chord  of  f .  The  cantus  firmus 
was  in  the  highest  voice.  The  two  improvised  voices  were 
in  the  interval  of  the  fourth  and  sixth  beneath,  except  at  the 
close,  when  the  note  of  the  cantus  firmus  proceeded  from 
the  leading  note  to  the  eighth  of  the  scale,  the  middle  voice 
ascended  to  the  fifth,  and  the  lowest  voice  descended  one 
degree  to  the  keynote  ;  for  example, 


Among  various  kinds  of  improvised  discant  in  later  use  Faux- 
s  the  following,  in  whi 
firmus  as  the  lowest  part  : 


was  the  following,  in  which  the  tenor  voice  had  the  cantus     our  on 


-^- 

H 

l_l 
il 


This  style  of  music   was   called   the  fauxbourdon,   or  falso 
bordone,  because  the  bass  did  not  consist  of  the  fundamental 


52  THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

notes  of  the  concords,  but  of  inverted  thirds,  the  keynotes 
being  in  the  upper  voice.  The  fauxbourdon  was  introduced 
into  the  Roman  Church  from  France,  about  the  year  1377, 
by  Gregory  XI,  and  was  in  favor  for  a  long  time.  The 
feeble  light  that  modern  historians  have  been  able  to  throw 
on  the  music  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  — 
the  age  of  Dante,  Chaucer,  and  Petrarch  —  seems  to  have 
made  the  darkness  of  that  period  more  profound. 

Examples  Very  few  specimens  of  early  contrapuntal  music  have 
counter-  come  down  to  us  unless  they  still  lie  buried  in  monastery 
point  libraries.  The  following  examples  are  extant :  first,  an  old 

French  chanson  composed  by  Adam  de  la  Hale,  who  was 
born  at  Arras  in  1240  and  died  in  1287.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  little  musical  plays,  from  one  of  which,  "  Robin 
and  Marion,"  this  three-voiced  chanson  is  taken ;  second,  the 
fragment  of  a  Gloria,  by  Guillaume  de  Machault,  which  was 
performed  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  V  of  France  in  1364 ; 
third,  an  Italian  canzone  in  three  voices  by  Francesco  Landino, 
a  Florentine  organist,  in  1 360  ;  fourth,  an  old  French  chanson 
in  three  voices,  author  unknown.  These  four  specimens  were 
deciphered  and  printed  by  Kiesewetter  in  his  valuable  his- 
tory of  European  music,  but  several  critics  have  found  his 
decipherments  incorrect.  Within  a  few  years  an  important 
addition  has  been  made  to  the  oldest  relics  of  harmony 
by  the  publication  of  over  fifty  contrapuntal  compositions  by 
Coussemaker,  in  his  work  entitled  "  L'art  harmonique  aux 
XIIe  et  XIIIe  siecles." 


CHAPTER   IV 
TROUBADOURS,  MINNESINGERS,  MINSTRELS,  ETC. 

Thus  far  we  have  devoted  our  attention  almost  exclusively  Secular 
to  the  history  of  music  in  connection  with  Christian  worship  ;  r 
at  this  point  it  will  be  well  to  glance  for  a  moment  at  another 
branch,  which  played  a  more  important  part  in  the  molding 
and  forming  of  modern  music  than  can  be  justly  estimated. 
I  refer  to  popular  secular  music.  The  first  regular  attempts 
in  polyphonic  music  were  probably  made  through  the  agency 
of  secular  melodies  as  manifested  in  the  cliscant.  At  a  later 
period,  which  we  have  not  yet  examined,  these  secular  melo- 
dies were  interwoven,  curiously  and  ingeniously,  into  church 
compositions  of  the  most  extended  and  serious  form  ;  even 
whole  masses  were  built  on  them.  The  composers  of  the 
Flemish  school  carried  this  practice  to  such  an  excess  that 
it  became  a  crying  evil,  finally  demanding  a  reform,  which  I 
shall  notice  later.  There  is  no  proper  evidence,  though  good 
reason  for  believing,  that  popular  secular  music  existed  in 
the  earliest  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  just  as  it  did  in 
antiquity ;  but  there  are  no  specimens  left  to  us  in  writing, 
and,  of  course,  all  oral  traditions  are  completely  lost.  The 
spread  of  Christianity  was  not  favorable  to  the  continuance 
of  the  popular  music  of  heathendom,  nor  did  the  church 
encourage  original  secular  poetry  and  song,  seeking  rather 
to  draw  the  minds  of  its  followers  away  from  all  earthly 
things.  The  great  migrations  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
in  Europe  must  have  destroyed  all  remnants  of  popular  song 
previously  existing.  It  required  a  new  culture  of  society  to 
bring  forth  new  fruits  in  verse  and  song,  which,  as  an  essen- 
tial complement  to  life,  were  required  to  give  free  play  to 

53 


54  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

its  joyous  and  happy  moods,  just  as  church  music  expressed 
its  more  solemn  and  elevated  moments. 

Melodies  The  history  of  national  popular  songs  furnishes  additional 

ofsystem of  evidence  that  the  music  of  past  ages  has  been  lost  simply 
notation  for  want  of  an  accurate  system  of  notation.  The  poetry  of 
early  ages  has  obtained  enduring  record  and  fame  in  the 
written  words  ;  and  rich  treasures  of  ancient  German,  French, 
Scandinavian,  and  Slavonic  folk  songs  still  survive  in  verse, 
while  the  music  which  gave  them  soul  and  fire  is  lost  for- 
ever. The  reign  of  Charlemagne  was  productive  of  popular 
poetry  and  music,  as  is  shown  by  the  variety  of  songs  then 
in  vogue  —  all  the  melodies  of  which,  unfortunately,  are 
lost  —  so  that  we  are  unable  to  decide  whether  the  secular 
songs  were  marked  with  their  own  peculiar  characteristics  of 
popular  melody  or  were  similar  to  the  choral  songs  of  church 
music.  But  we  are  led  to  believe  that  there  was  a  marked 
difference,  judging  from  the  variety  of  names  given  to 
secular  songs  at  that  time.  There  were  love  songs  and  comic 
songs ;  diabolic  songs,  which  were  sung  at  night  over  the 
graves  of  the  dead  in  order  to  frighten  away  the  devil ; 
dissolute  songs,  which  were  forbidden  to  be  sung  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  church ;  songs  of  victory  and  of  battle, 
etc.  The  name  "  minstrel,"  or  "  me"nestrel,"  was  a  title  given 
by  Pepin,  father  of  Charlemagne,  to  his  chapelmaster,  and 
subsequently,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  name  was  applied 
to  traveling  players  and  singers,  —  a  numerous  class  in 
Europe  from  the  eighth  to  the  eighteenth  century.  Prior  to 
the  age  of  the  troubadours  we  are  unable  to  judge  of  secular 
music  by  examples. 

Trouba-  Troubadour  poetry  and  song  held  universal  sway  in  Europe 

in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  The  word  "  trouba- 
dour "  is  derived  from  trobar,  trouver,  to  find  out  or  devise, 
and  the  art  de  trobar,  gay  saber,  or  gay  science,  was  practised 
by  kings  and  princes,  who  rivaled  each  other  in  this  profes- 
sion. The  courts  of  the  Dukes  of  Toulouse,  Provence,  and 


TROUBADOURS,  MINNESINGERS,  ETC.  55 

Barcelona  were  the  centers  of  this  poetry  and  song.  Duke 
William  of  Poitiers  (1087-1127),  it  is  supposed,  was  the 
first  troubadour.  Besides  these  royal  artists  there  was 
another  class  of  troubadours,  who  were  held  in  the  service 
of  the  princes  as  court  poets. 

The  troubadours,  unlike  their  contemporaries,  the  German  Minstrels, 
minnesingers,  frequently  did  not  sing  their  own  songs,  but  iongleurs 
held  in  their  employ  for  this  purpose  minstrels,  or  jongleurs, 
who  were  persons  well  skilled  in  singing  and  playing.  The 
jongleurs  held  a  subordinate  position,  and,  though  here  and 
there  individuals  were  of  knightly  origin,  as  a  class  they 
belonged  to  the  lower  ranks  of  society.  The  troubadours 
never  sang  for  money,  but  for  honor  or  love,  while  the  jongleur 
was  a  paid  servant.  It  is  related  of  one  troubadour  that  he 
was  very  much  offended  because  he  was  called  a  jongleur. 
"  I  give  without  return,"  said  he,  "  and  will  have  no  other 
reward  for  my  art  than  love's  reward." 

The  minstrels  often  led  wild  and  irregular  lives,  wandering 
like  gypsies  from  place  to  place  without  any  settled  homes,  in 
parties  of  men,  women,  and  children.  In  Germany  for  a  long 
time  they  were  held  in  contempt  and  enjoyed  no  rights, 
either  of  church  or  state.  In  France  and  England  they  received 
better  treatment.  In  the  course  of  time  they  settled  down  Organiza- 

in  towns  and  cities  and  became   organized  bodies,  usually  tl(?n  °f  Jhe 

J     minstrels 

under  the  protection  of  some  nobleman.  It  was  their  custom 
to  choose  a  leader,  who  received  the  title,  "  King  of  the 
Minstrels."  In  France  there  were  minstrel  kings  as  early  as 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  England,  a  brotherhood  of  min- 
strels existed  in  olden  times  at  Beverly  in  Yorkshire.  The 
first  king  of  the  minstrels  was  chosen  in  1381  through  a  priv- 
ilege granted  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster.  During 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV,  in  1469,  a  license  was  granted  to  the 
minstrels  that  they  might  be  incorporated  into  a  body. 

A  clever  jongleur  united  a  variety  of  accomplishments.  It 
was  not  uncommon  for  him  to  be  able  to  play  as  many  as  nine  • 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


musical  instruments,  to  be  skillful  in  the  arts  of  rope  dancing 
The  instru-  and  tumbling,  in  imitating  the  song  of  birds,  and  in  playing  the 
f°°\, — hence  the  name  "jongleur,"  derived  from joculator,  a 
jester.  The  jongleurs  commonly  accompanied  their  songs  on 
the  harp,  or  rota,  as  it  was  called  in  mediaeval  times,  the 
peasant's  lyre,  a  kind  of  hurdy-gurdy,  and  the  rebec,  a  three- 
stringed  instrument  played  with  a  bow.  Besides  these  there 
was  a  great  variety  of  instruments  in  use  ;  as  for  instance,  the 
vielle  or  viola,  —  a  name  apparently  related  to  fides,  a  string.1 
Other  instruments  peculiar  to  that  age  were  the  gigue,  sam- 
buca,  salteire,  armonie,  muse,  chiphonie,  and  frestele ;  they 
have  long  since  become  obsolete,  and  we  scarcely  know  more 
of  them  than  the  mere  names.  In  the  orchestra  of  instru- 
ments —  if  the  name  can  be  applied  to  such  rude  beginnings 
—  were  included  various  kinds  of  drums,  horns,  trumpets 
and  trombones.  The  jongleur  generally  played  his  own  accom- 
paniments in  unison  with  the  melody ;  but  the  better-trained 
ones  attempted  a  separate  part,  something  in  the  style  of  the 
organum  or  discant. 

The  principal  subject  of  Provencal  poetry  and  music  was 
devotion  to  woman,  —  the  celebration  of  her  virtue  and  beauty. 
The  poet  selected  some  lady,  whether  married  or  single  it 
mattered  not,  as  the  object  of  his  inspiration,  to  sing  to  her 
of  the  bliss  and  pains  of  love  without  any  thought  of  a  nearer 
acquaintance.  Some  of  these  lyrics  were  the  chanson,  or 
canso,  a  chivalrous  love  song,  the  seranas,  or  serenade,  and 
the  albas,  or  aubades,  —  songs  sung  at  dawn  or  in  the  evening 
to  celebrate  the  bliss  of  lovers ;  the  tenso  was  a  poetic  com- 
bat in  which  love  affairs  formed  the  subject  of  dispute ;  the 
planh,  a  lament  on  the  death  of  a  beloved  friend  or  hero,  or 
on  the  disappointments  of  love  ;  the  sirventes,  a  song  or  poem 
of  service,  which  was  devoted  to  the  praise  of  some  patron, 

1  Fidula  was  the  general  name  for  stringed  instruments,  and  if  we  follow 
the  word  through  all  its  changes  fromyfaWa  to  vidula,  videl  (or  fiddle),  viele, 
vioel,  we  reach  viola,  and  finally  its  diminutive  violin. 


Love,  the 
subject  of 
the  poetry 
and  music 


TROUBADOURS,  MINNESINGERS,  ETC.  57 

or  the  rehearsal  of  some  private  or  public  affair.  There  were 
also  various  songs,  ballads,  and  dance  rounds,  in  which  the 
performers  formed  a  circle,  one  singing  the  solo,  the  others 
joining  in  the  refrain. 

The  oldest  known  of  these  lyric  melodies  are  by  the  Chate- 
lain  de  Coucy,  of  the  twelfth  century ;  Thibaut,  king  of 
Navarre  (1201-1254);  Gaucelm  Faidit ;  and  Adam  de  la 
Hale.  If  these  pieces  are  correctly  deciphered  we  cannot  but 
be  surprised  to  hear  how  modern  they  sound.  We  feel  that 
they  are  not  the  result  of  a  labored  theory,  but  the  natural 
effusions  of  a  poetic  spirit.  The  troubadours  were  naturalists 
in  music.  Their  pieces  are  marked  by  a  melodious  flow  and 
sense  of  rhythm,  with  peculiar  and  quaint  turns  and  cadences. 
They  also  show  a  decided  affinity  for  the  clear,  tonic  character 
which  distinguishes  modern  music  in  comparison  with  the 
mystical  uncertainty  of  key  in  mediaeval  church  music.  Per- 
haps the  most  ni'ave  and  pleasing  melodies  among  the  number 
are  by  the  trouvere,  Adam  de  la  Hale,  who  was  not  only  one 
of  the  earliest  musicians  to  write  in  parts  or  counterpoint, 
but  appears  also  as  the  founder  of  the  French  drama. 

Corresponding  to  the  troubadours  of  Spain  and  the  south 
of  France  were  the  trouveres  of  the  north  of  France  and 
England,  who  made  their  appearance  somewhat  later  in  his- 
tory. Italy  suffered  a  kind  of  invasion  of  troubadours  and 
minstrels,  and  was  for  a  time  under  the  influence  of  Provencal 
poetry  and  song.  Even  Dante  and  Petrarch  studied  it  and 
copied  some  of  its  forms.  It  is  a  question  whether  any  speci- 
mens of  Italian  popular  songs  of  this  period  have  come  down 
to  the  present  day. 

Of  all  other  European  countries  Germany  was  most  influ-  Minne- 
enced   by  the  troubadours.    The  minnesingers  and   master-  Caster- 
singers  were  similar  classes  of  lyrists,  knightly  poets,  and  singers  in 
musicians.     But  the  Germans  did  not   slavishly  copy  their 
neighbors ;    the    original    Teutonic    element    was    manifest 
from  the  outset.    The  differences  between  the  Romanic  and 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Minne- 
singers 
skilled 


Germanic  types  are  fully  illustrated  in  the  national  songs  of 
the  respective  races.  The  German  minnelied  (love  song)  was 
more  earnest  and  tender,  though  less  brilliant  and  pleasing, 
than  the  song  of  the  troubadour.  The  minnesinger  was  devoted 
to  all  womanhood,  while  the  troubadour  sought  out  a  single 
object  for  his  poetical  passion.  This  devotion  on  the  part  of 
the  minnesinger  was  in  a  measure  prompted  by  his  religious 
feeling ;  for  the  Mariencultus ,  or  veneration  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  was  an  intense,  mystical  phase  of  religious  worship  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  had  a  deep  connection  with  the  poet's 
respect  for  woman. 

The  minnesingers  stood  in  closer  relation  to  the  people 
than  did  the  troubadours,  counting  as  many  of  the  burgher 
class  among  their  number  as  of  the  order  of  knighthood.  As 
the  minnesingers  were  usually  skilled  in  playing  and  singing, 
they  dispensed  with  the  aid  of  the  jongleurs  or  minstrels.  The 
Wartburg  near  Eisenach,  the  seat  of  the  court  of  Hermann, 
Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  was  the  headquarters  of  minnesing- 
ers. Among  the  most  celebrated  singers  were  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach,  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  Heinrich  Schreiber, 
Heinrich  von  Zwetzschin,  all  of  knightly  rank,  Biterolf,  and 
Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,  burgher  of  Eisenach. 

Many  specimens  of  the  minnesongs  have  been  preserved, 
and  we  are  well  able  to  judge  of  their  characteristics.  The 
recitative  style  of  many  impresses  us  ;  the  meter  of  the  words 
decides  the  length  of  the  notes.  The  cadence  is  often  marked 
by  a  freer  flow  of  melody.  The  grave  and  serious  character 
of  the  older  songs  reminds  us  of  Gregorian  music.  Some  of 
the  later  specimens,  however,  are  lively  and  modern,  as  the 
following  example  shows : 

DER  KUNINC   RODOLP 


Der         ku  -  nine      Ro    -  dolp       myn  -  net      Got       und 
Der         ku  -  nine     Ro    -  dolp       rich   -  tet      wol       und 


TROUBADOURS,  MINNESINGERS,  ETC.  59 

zj=q_»— 4— p=p= 


ist      an      tru  -  wen       ste  -  te  der        ku  -  nine  Ro  -  dolp 

haz  -  zet     val  -  sche      re  -   te  der        ku  -  nine  Ro  -  dolp 


hat     sich    ma    -  nigen    scan  -  den    wol     vur       sa       -      get 
ist      eyn     belt       an          tu  -   gen  -  den    unvurt-za  get 


m 


m 


Der 


ku    -    nine      Ro    -    dolp 


ret       Got       unde 


al   -  le       wer  -  de      vrou-wen,   der      ku  -  nine    Ro  -  dolp 


let      sich    di       ke  in    ho  -  en       e    -   ren     scou  -  wen 


ich 


gan   ym    wol   daz     ym   nach  sy  -  ner     mil  -  te      heil 


r1^ 


.scicht         der     mey  -  ster    syn  -  gen       gi  -  gen     sa  -  gen  daz 


-P— -P 


1 


hort   her   gerne  unde      git       yn     dar  -  umme  nicht. 

The  poetry  of  the  minnesingers  reached  its  highest  culmina- 
tion in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  rapidly  declined  in  the 
following  century. 

The  mastersingers  were  a  class  of  poets  and  singers,  gen-  Master- 
erally  not  of  knightly  rank,  but  of  the  middle  class,  including  Sin8ers 
schoolmasters,  clerks,  and  mechanics.  Guilds,  or  companies 


60  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

of  mastersingers  (with  rules  and  regulations),  were  organized 
in  the  rich  cities  of  Germany.  Mentz  was  the  center  of  mas- 
tersinging  for  a  time  ;  a  high  school  of  singing  was  established 
there.  In  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  cultivated  extensively 
at  Munich,  Strassburg,  and  Augsburg. 

Nuremberg  was  the  headquarters  of  mastersinging  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  it  reached  its  culmination  there  under 
the  famous  Hans  Sachs,  the  cobbler  poet.  The  poems  of  the 
mastersingers  were  always  lyrical.  The  entire  poem  was 
called  a  Bar  and  was  divided  into  three  or  more  stanzas. 
The  melody  was  called  a  tone,  or  Weise  (air) ;  it  was  very 
monotonous  and  expressionless,  and  sounded  like  church 
psalmody.  The  music  related  so  indefinitely  to  the  words 
that  the  tone  was  oftentimes  composed  previously  to  the  text. 
Curious  names  were  given  to  these  melodies ;  for  instance, 
the  "  Proud  Youth's  Air,"  the  "  High  Maiden's  Air,"  the 
"  Short  Ape's  Air,"  the  "  High  Fir-Tree  Air." 
Officers  The  rules  of  art  of  the  guild  were  very  arbitrary.  Every 

th^  maste?  little  fault  °*  smSin&  or  recitation  was  fined.  There  were 
singers  thirty-two  important  faults  to  be  avoided  according  to  their 
rules  of  singing.  The  ruling  officers  were  the  headmaster,  the 
crownmaster,  the  recorder  or  markmaster,  and  the  cashier, 
who  represented  the  four  classes  of  members,  —  the  masters, 
the  poets,  the  singers,  and  the  classmates,  as  they  were 
called.  The  master  won  his  title  by  the  invention  of  new 
poems  and  melodies ;  the  poet  sang  his  own  poems  to  the 
melodies  of  others  ;  the  singer  was  able  to  sing  the  well-known 
melodies  by  heart,  without  appearing  as  a  composer ;  and  the 
classmates  possessed  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  rules  of 
tabulature,  or  system  of  notation,  which  they  used.  At  their 
free  meeting,  or  Freisingen,  persons  not  members  of  the 
guild  could  appear  as  singers.  They  were  obliged  to  sing 
without  any  notes,  and  four  officers  marked  down  their  faults. 
One  watched  the  rhymes,  another  the  measure  of  the  verse, 
another  the  melody,  and  another  had  the  open  Bible  before 


TROUBADOURS,  MINNESINGERS,  ETC.  6 1 

him  to  see  that  no  transgressions  were  made  against  the 
Scriptures.  At  Nuremberg  mastersinging  did  not  die  out 
until  the  eighteenth  century. 

Other  representatives  of  secular  music  were  the  minstrels,  Minstrels 
a  numerous  class  in  Europe  from  the  eighth  century  to  the 
eighteenth,  to  whom  we  owe  many  popular  airs.  In  their 
travels  they  were  the  means  of  awakening  a  love  of  music 
among  the  people,  and  though  often  despised,  they  did  a 
great  service.  The  minstrels  are  associated  with  all  that  is 
poetical  and  romantic  in  English  literature,  from  Chaucer 
to  Scott ;  they  are  supposed  to  be  the  genuine  descendants 
of  the  ancient  bards,  and  in  England  were  always  welcome  at 
palace  and  hall. 

Chappell's  "  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time  "  contains  Popular 
many  old  English  airs,  some  of  which  were  sung  by  the  min-  a 
strels.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  is  the  quaint  and 
charming  "  Sumer  is  icumen  in."  This  melody  is  the  theme 
of  a  six-part  canon,1  which  is  a  remarkable  example  of  regular 
counterpoint.  If  the  date  1250  be  correct,  it  proves  that 
England  was  then  much  in  advance  of  the  Continent  in  this 
difficult  art.  From  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great  to  Charles 
the  First,  England  was  as  musical  a  country  as  any  in  Europe. 
The  popular  airs  exercised  a  great  influence  in  all  the  lead- 
ing countries  ;  this  was  especially  the  case  in  Germany.  The 
old  volkslieder  are  to  be  considered  as  quite  apart  from  the 
minnelieder,  both  in  the  words  and  melodies. 

The  words  of  the  old  songs  were  metrical  and  employed  The  Ger- 
rhyme ;  by  this  means  the  music  was  naturally  divided  into  Jj1^  vo   s' 
phrases,  with  cadences  at  the   ends  of  the  alternate  lines. 
Thus  the  melodies  were  in  equal  divisions,  and  the  rhythm 
became  clear  and  marked.    The  natural  flow  of  the  rhymes 
inspired  the  untutored  singers  to  originate  tunes  wherewith 
to  clothe  and  beautify  the  words  ;  thus  many  beautiful  songs 
sprang  into  existence,  though  when  they  were  composed,  and 

1  Grove,  Dictionary  of  Music,  III,  766. 


62 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Ritual  best 
suited  to 
develop- 
ment of 
counter- 
point 


by  whom,  is  not  known.  These  songs  went  from  mouth  to 
mouth  until  they  became  universal  favorites,  and  in  many 
cases  are  still  sung  by  the  people.  Such  heirlooms  are  better 
than  precious  stones.  They  sprang  up  like  wild  flowers  and 
have  all  the  aroma  and  beauty  of  the  flowers.  The  German 
volkslied  is  more  naive,  tender,  and  rhythmical  than  the  heavy 
and  religious  minnelied,  which  in  most  cases  approaches  the 
choral  in  its  slow  and  equal  notes.  Among  all  the  popular 
airs  of  the  Middle  Ages  those  of  the  Germans  are  distin- 
guished especially  for  their  deep  and  tender  feeling  and  nai've 
simplicity.  They  are  like  violets  among  flowers,  and  the 
"Violet"  of  Goethe  and  Mozart  might  serve  as  a  typical 
German  lied,  and  reminds  us  in  its  simplicity  and  tenderness 
of  the  old  songs.  Two  beautiful  examples  of  the  old  German 
volkslied  are :  first,  a  love  song,  author  and  date  unknown, 
entitled  "  Unlust  det  dich  griissen"  ;  second,  a  famous  love 
song  of  parting,  entitled  "  Entlaubet  ist  der  Walde,"  which 
belongs  probably  to  the  fifteenth  century.  The  masters  of  the 
early  German  school  of  church  music  of  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  Finck,  Mahu,  Isaac,  and  others,  used  many 
of  the  popular  airs  as  themes  for  contrapuntal  treatment. 

The  words  of  the  ritual  service  of  the  church,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  in  Latin  and  not  metrical ;  the  slow,  monotonous 
notes  of  the  Gregorian  song  were  in  strong  contrast  to  the 
rhythmical  variety  of  the  people's  songs.  In  the  first  experi- 
ments in  music  in  parts,  however,  the  very  simplicity  and 
slowness  of  the  notes  of  the  Gregorian  music  made  it  possible 
for  musicians  to  work  out  the  problem  of  counterpoint,  or 
music  in  parts ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  principal  laws  that 
govern  such  music  were  established  through  long  experience, 
that  the  time  was  ripe  for  the  employment  of  the  popular  airs 
by  learned  masters  as  themes  for  their  works,  and  such  mas- 
ters did  not  appear  before  the  fourteenth  century. 


CHAPTER  V 

MUSIC  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS 

The  labors  of  Hucbald,  Guido,  Franco,  and,  centuries  later, 
of  Marchettus  and  De  Muris,  in  teaching  the  rules  of  the 
organum  and  discant,  and  of  musical  notation  and  measure, 
gradually  opened  the  way  to  practical  results  of  inestimable 
value,  and  we  now  approach  a  great  epoch  in  musical  history. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  until  toward  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  the  progress  of  music  was  very  slow  and 
unimportant,  compared  with  what  occurred  after  that  time. 
The  new  age,  already  inaugurated  by  Dante,  Giotto,  Pisano, 
and  other  illustrious  poets  and  artists,  witnessed  the  revival 
of  literature  and  art,  the  invention  of  printing,  and  the  rapid 
enlightenment  of  European  society.  Scholasticism  was  des- 
tined to  give  place  to  modern  discovery  and  invention.  This 
transformation  could  not  fail  to  influence  music  as  well  as  the 
other  fine  arts.  Yet  it  cannot  be  maintained  that  the  new 
life  born  into  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture  in  Italy 
during  the  fifteenth  century  inspired  a  simultaneous  reform 
in  music.  For  the  renaissance  of  music,  or  what  corresponds 
to  the  so-called  renaissance  of  the  fine  arts  —  that  is,  the  new 
spirit  and  style  of  art  brought  forth  by  the  study  and  imita- 
tion of  ancient  classical  models  —  was  not  attempted  until  • 
about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  at  a  time 
when  the  groundwork  of  the  art  had  already  been  firmly  laid. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  very  first  experiments  in  First  ex- 
counterpoint  were  made   by  northern  musicians.    Hucbald,  Pne™  ™ter- 


n 

Franco  of   Cologne,   Walter    Odington,   Adam   de  la   Hale,  point  by 
Hieronymus  of  Moravia,  Machault,  De  Muris,  are  the  names  Musicians 
identified  with  the  earliest  attempts  in  harmonic  music.    It 

63 


64  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

was  in  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  Northern  France,  and 
England  that  the  first  masters  of  this  new  music  flourished. 
It  is  by  no  means  a  settled  question,  however,  which  of  these 
countries  deserves  the  honor  of  having  produced  the  first 
specimens  of  developed  counterpoint.  Burney  claims  it  for 
England,  Fe"tis  and  Kiesewetter  for  the  Netherlands,  while 
some  of  the  present  German  critics  believe  they  have  undis- 
puted evidence,  in  the  discovery  of  an  old  songbook  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  "  Lochheimer  Liederbuch,"  that  good 
counterpoint  flourished  earliest  in  Germany.  Finally,  Cousse- 
maker  has  published  a  numerous  collection  of  early  contra- 
puntal pieces  of  French  origin,  which  proves  at  least  that  the 
French  have  an  equal  right  to  claim  this  honor. 

There  does  not  exist,  however,  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  which 
of  these  countries  bore  the  first  ripe  fruits  in  this  new  field. 
We  have  only  to  point  to  the  illustrious  names  of  the  Flemish 
composers  who,  for  nearly  two  centuries,  held  undisputed 
sway,  and  whose  fame  spread  over  the  civilized  world. 
Through  them  polyphonic  music,  which  previously  had  given 
only  vague  hints  of  its  possible  future,  became  so  general 
that  unison  singing,  except  in  secular  and  Gregorian  song,  was 
totally  neglected  for  over  two  hundred  years  ;  and  even  this 
exception  was  not  absolute,  for  the  contrapuntists  chose 
secular  and  Gregorian  melodies  as  the  subject  of  their  most 
intricate  counterpoint. 

Four  It  is  customary  with  musical  historians  to  divide  the  history 

the  hlstor  °^  t'ie  Netherland  school  into  four  epochs  as  represented  by 
of  music  in  the  composers  of  most  distinguished  merit,  —  Dufay,  Ocken- 
heim,  Josquin,  Gombert,  Willaert,  and  Orlando  Lasso.  The 
epoch  of  Dufay  and  his  contemporaries  marked  the  first  stage 
in  the  development  of  good  counterpoint.  In  the  second  epoch, 
that  of  Ockenheim  and  Josquin,  artistic  skill  and  finesse,  — 
involved  contrapuntal  progressions,  —  reached  an  extraordi- 
nary height,  while  the  fame  of  the  Flemish  masters  became  uni- 
versal. The  third  epoch  notes  the  return  from  extravagances 


MUSIC   IN   THE   NETHERLANDS  65 

in  technical  skill  and  abstruse  experiments  to  more  reasonable 
limits.  The  fourth  epoch  closes  with  the  greatest  Flemish 
master,  Orlando  Lasso,  who  is  nominally  to  be  classed  with 
his  countrymen.  Since  his  day  the  Netherlands  have  never 
regained  their  prominence  in  music. 

Guillaume  Dufay,  the  pioneer  of  Flemish  music,  was  born  Guillaume 
at  Chimay  in  Hainaut.    The  date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain,  and   Dufay 
we  possess  only  a  meager  account  of  his  life.    His  reputation 
as  a  composer  began,  it  is  conjectured,  about  1436.    Very 
few  of  Dufay's  musical  compositions  are  extant ;  several  of 
his  masses  are  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  Papal  Chapel 
at  Rome. 

The  most  prominent  contemporaries  of  Dufay  were  his 
countrymen,  Binchois,  Faugues,  Eloy,  Brasart,  and  the  Eng- 
lish musician,  John  Dunstable.  The  extant  works  of  these 
contrapuntists  show  that  considerable  progress  had  been  made 
in  the  use  of  chords,  in  the  treatment  of  the  voices,  and  in 
musical  measure  and  notation.  Discords  were  introduced  on 
unaccented  divisions  of  the  measure  as  passing  notes ;  gener- 
ally as  regular  suspensions,  the  fourth  before  the  dominant 
third,  or  the  seventh  before  the  sixth.  The  leading  note,  or 
seventh  of  the  scale,  was  resolved  into  the  octave  as  a  passing 
note  in  the  following  manner  : 


7L      & 

f^ 

BB 

This  curious  cadence  was  the  fashion  for  a  long  time,  but  in 
the  sixteenth  century  it  became  antiquated.  According  to  the 
old  custom  a  cantus  firmus  was  selected  as  the  basis  of  con- 
trapuntal pieces.  The  melody,  a  secular  tune,  was  usually  set 
in  the  tenor,  to  which  other  higher  and  lower  parts  were  com- 
posed in  imitation.  The  fugal,  imitative  style  was  yet  crude, 
though  augmentations  and  short  canons  in  the  octave  were 
introduced.  The  counterpoint  was  commonly  in  three  or 
four  parts. 


66  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

In  judging  of  the  counterpoint  of  Dufay's  time  we  should 
compare  it  with  that  of  earlier  centuries.  The  want  of  flexi- 
bility in  the  several  voices  or  parts,  the  monotonous  character 
of  the  harmonic  progressions,  and  the  absence  of  tasteful 
invention  were  the  prevailing  characteristics  of  style ;  but  if 
we  compare  the  works  of  Dufay  and  his  contemporaries  with 
the  rude  attempts  of  Adam  de  la  Hale,  Machault,  Landino, 
and  others,  we  perceive  at  once  that  remarkable  progress  had 
been  made  in  melody  and  harmony. 

Johannes  Dufay's  most  noted  pupil  was  Johannes  Ockenheim,or  Okeg- 

hem,  the  real  founder  of  the  Flemish  school.  He  was  a  native 
of  Hainaut  and  was  born  in  1430.  His  active  career  as  a  com- 
poser and  teacher  began  about  the  middle  of  the  century- 
His  name  was  recorded  in  1443  as  a  singer  at  the  Cathedral 
at  Antwerp.  Subsequently  Ockenheim  was  chosen  as  one  of 
the  sixteen  royal  chapel  singers  of  Louis  XI  of  France,  and 
after  many  years  of  service  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Martin's  at  Tours,  as  a  mark  of  honor  from  the 
king.  At  a  later  period  of  his  life  he  made  a  visit  to  his  na- 
tive land,  and  was  received  with  flattering  attention ;  but  he 
returned  finally  to  Tours,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  days,  dying  in  1513. 

Ockenheim  was  called  the  "  Prince  of  Music,"  and  enjoyed 
the  highest  respect  of  his  contemporaries,  both  on  account  of 
his  compositions  and  his  extraordinary  talents  as  a  teacher; 
the  most  celebrated  masters  of  the  fifteenth  century  were 
among  his  pupils.  Ockenheim  has  been  esteemed  as  the  pro- 
genitor of  modern  music,  as  the  patriarch  of  counterpoint  and 
canonic  writing.  Such  praise,  of  course,  is  unmerited  ;  yet, 
though  Ockenheim  was  not  the  inventor  of  double  counter- 
point and  the  modern  canon  as  has  been  supposed,  his  mission 
was  an  important  one.  The  influence  of  his  music  and  teach- 
ings was  far  more  extended  than  that  of  any  other  musician  of 
his  day,  reaching  into  foreign  countries.  Ockenheim  stood  far 
in  advance  of  his  predecessors  ;  his  compositions  bear  the 


MUSIC   IN  THE   NETHERLANDS  67 

marks  of  higher  understanding  and  intelligence.  The  forms 
of  counterpoint  became  so  facile  under  his  pen  that  they 
frequently  led  into  abstruseness. 

His  favorite  form  of  music  was  the  canon.    A  canon  then  Canon; 
did  not  signify,  as  it  does  nowadays,  a  composition  in  which 


two  or  more  parts  enter  one  after  another  and  follow  each  cance  of 
other  throughout  in  strict  thematic  imitation,  but  primarily 
the  rules,  signs,  and  devices  which  were  written  out  only 
on  one  staff  for  the  solution  of  a  musical  enigma  or  puzzle 
canon.  Tinctoris  explains  the  canon  to  be  a  rule  to  enable  one 
to  search  out  the  hidden  meaning  of  the  composer.  Subse- 
quently, when  composers  began  to  write  out  the  canon  in  vocal 
score,  the  word  signified  strict  imitation,  as  it  does  at  present, 
and  to  this  style  of  composition  was  also  applied  the  word 
"  fuga,"  because  of  the  flight  and  pursuit  of  the  theme 
through  all  the  voices.  The  modern  fugue,  however,  was  not 
developed  before  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

In  Ockenheim's  time  there  were  all  sorts  of  canons,  — 
canons  in  contrary  and  retrograde  movement,  in  augmentation 
and  diminution,  and  enigma  canons  of  great  variety  and  inge- 
nuity. Their  inventors  sought  for  every  device  to  puzzle  the 
singer  instead  of  aiding  him,  with  the  idea,  we  suppose,  that 
they  were  accomplishing  a  worthy  object.  The  several  voices 
of  a  canon  were  frequently  sung  simultaneously,  in  different 
kinds  of  time  ;  and  intricacies  arose  on  this  score  which  would 
drive  a  modern  singer  to  despair.  Voices,  not  a  note  of  which 
was  intended  to  be  sung,  were  introduced  and  carried  silently 
through  a  whole  mass.  The  singer  was  often  obliged  to  find 
out  for  himself  the  hidden  clef  and  key  of  the  canon,  as  well 
as  the  entrance  of  the  recurring  voices.  A  Kyrie  of  Ocken- 
heim  has  interrogation  marks  instead  of  clefs. 

Compositions  were  sometimes  written  in  more  than  thirty 
parts.  Kircher,  in  his  celebrated  "  Musurgia,"  gave  the  solu- 
tion of  a  particular  instance  of  this  kind,  which  consisted  of 
the  bewildering  number  of  five  hundred  and  twelve  voices, 


68 


THE  HISTORY  OF   MUSIC 


Character 
of  music  of 
Ocken- 
heim's 
time 


Masses  and 
motets 
based  on 
secular 
melodies 


in  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  chorus  divisions.  But  these 
were  not  real  parts,  like  the  double  and  treble  choruses  of  the 
Roman  and  Venetian  schools  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  they 
simply  constituted  a  round  of  voices,  and  hence  this  species 
of  composition  was  called  the  circle  canon,  or  round. 

In  the  music  of  Ockenheim's  time  we  do  not  commonly 
find  more  than  five  or  six  real  parts.  Although  the  harmony 
was  still  harsh  and  incorrect  in  places,  considerable  improve- 
ment had  been  gained  in  the  melodious  flow  of  the  voices,  and 
there  are  evident  in  this  music  many  traces  of  individuality 
and  expression.  There  are  modern  musicians  who  fail  to  per- 
ceive the  intrinsic  merit  of  this  intellectual  music  of  these  mas- 
ters. It  is  considered  as  dry  and  abstruse,  and  utterly  devoid 
of  interest.  But  such  an  opinion  only  betrays  ignorance  and 
prejudice,  for  even  were  it  not  the  fact  that  much  of  Ocken- 
heim's music  is  pervaded  with  genuine  musical  feeling  and  a 
sense  of  beauty,  we  should  still  be  indebted  to  him  and  other 
Netherland  composers  for  the  thorough  development  of  the 
intellectual  part  of  music,  which  otherwise  would  possibly 
never  have  come  to  light ;  and  the  art  would  never  have 
reached  beyond  the  primitive  forms  of  the  song  and  dance. 
By  means  of  the  problems  worked  out  with  the  understanding, 
musicians  were  enabled  to  acquire  that  technical  skill  and 
experience  which  are  indispensable  to  the  composer  as  a 
means  of  giving  ready  expression  to  his  emotions  and  imagi- 
nation in  ideal  and  permanent  forms. 

The  forms  of  music  most  in  fashion  with  the  Netherland 
composers  were  the  mass,  motet,  and  secular  part  song.  The 
composer  bestowed  particular  attention  on  the  mass,  which 
called  forth  his  highest  talent  and  skill  in  designing  musical 
problems  and  artifices.  Every  mass  and  motet  was  named 
after  the  first  line  of  the  cantus  firmus,  which,  as  I  have 
already  stated,  was  some  familiar  choral  or  secular  melody 
on  which  the  whole  composition  was  founded.  Accordingly 
we  meet  with  some  very  odd  titles  in  church  music  ;  for 


MUSIC   IN  THE  NETHERLANDS  69 

example,  "Adieu  mes  amours,"   "  Des  rouges  nez,"   "  For- 
tuna  desperata." 

The  most  famous  of  all  the  secular  melodies  used  in  this  L'omme 
way  was  the  Provencal  song,  "  L'omme  arme."  This  was  ^ff/jj""" 
interwoven  into  numberless  pieces,  from  the  time  of  Dufay,  nomine 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  to  that  of  Carissimi  in  the  seven- 
teenth. The  melody  was  placed  in  the  tenor,  and  if  a  mass 
had  no  such  secular  tenor,  it  was  called  sine  nomine.  In  those 
days  men  did  not  generally  heed  the  true  meaning  of  the 
sacred  text,  and  as  the  words  of  the  mass,  in  their  constant 
repetition,  were  perfectly  familiar  to  the  singers,  it  became 
the  custom  to  write  the  words  down  only  at  the  opening  of 
the  various  movements,  Kyrie,  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  etc.,  it 
being  left  to  the  good  taste  and  discretion  of  the  singers  to 
apply  the  words  to  the  notes.  The  result  can  easily  be  imag- 
ined. The  marks  of  accentuation  and  quantity  were  often  not 
only  applied  to  the  wrong  syllables,  but  the  text  itself  was 
frequently  misplaced  or  omitted,  so  that  it  speedily  degen- 
erated into  a  series  of  meaningless  syllables. 

The  text  of  the  motet  and  secular  part  song  was  better  The  text  of 
treated.  The  very  name,  motet,  from  mot  (text),  indicates  the  mot< 
the  importance  of  adhering  to  the  sacred  words,  which  were 
generally  selected  from  the  Scriptures.  There  were  people 
ready  enough  to  condemn  these  abuses.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  so  far  as  the  introduction  of  secular  music 
and  words  into  church  music  is  concerned,  it  was  not  an 
unmitigated  evil.  No  profanation  was  intended  ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  nai've  beauty  of  the  popular  songs  exerted  a 
good  influence  on  the  contrapuntal  art.  The  common  people 
were,  in  this  manner,  made  to  feel  and  appreciate  in  some 
degree  elaborate  church  music,  through  its  association  with 
the  favorite  melodies  which  they  had  sung  from  childhood. 
Had  the  musicians  from  the  outset  originated  their  own 
themes,  the  music  would  have  appeared  in  strange  and  unwel- 
come contrast  to  the  songs  of  the  people.  These  served  as  a 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Prominent 
contempo- 
raries of 
Ockenheim 


Josquin 
de  Pres 


safe  guide,  and  protected  the  art  of  counterpoint  from  losing 
itself  in  aimless  endeavors ;  for  the  counter  melodies  were 
composed  in  close  imitation  of  the  chosen  theme,  and  thereby 
the  counterpoint  won  a  certain  naturalness  and  ease,  which 
otherwise  would  not  have  been  attained.  It  was  not,  however, 
any  poverty  of  invention  which  led  these  old  masters  to  choose 
the  Gregorian  and  secular  songs  as  subjects  for  their  music, 
but  it  was  rather  a  feeling  for  that  bond  of  sympathy  which, 
during  the  Middle  Ages,  united  all  artists  with  the  people. 
The  counterpoint  of  that  time,  like  the  architecture,  paint- 
ing, and  poetry,  sprang  from  the  people  and  was  designed  for 
the  people. 

Ockenheim  was  a  very  productive  composer,  judging  from 
the  number  of  masses,  motets,  and  part  songs  which  have 
been  preserved,  and  which  are  known  to  be  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  his  works.  Petrucci,  the  inventor  of  music  printing, 
published  several  books  of  his  compositions  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  Some  of  Ockenheim's  most  prominent  con- 
temporaries were  his  countrymen,  Busnois,  Caron,  Regis,  and 
the  learned  musical  theorist  Johannes  Tinctoris,  who  was  the 
author  of  the  first  musical  lexicon.  His  most  prominent  for- 
eign contemporaries  were  Johannes  Goodendag  of  Germany 
and  Guarnerii  and  Hykaert  of  Naples.  Ockenheim  had  more 
than  his  equal  in  merit,  though  not  in  fame,  in  his  countryman, 
Jakob  Obrecht,  or  Hobrecht,  whose  music  is  considered  as  su- 
perior to  that  of  all  other  masters  prior  to  Josquin.  Obrecht' s 
counterpoint  was  more  tasteful  and  elaborate  and  his  harmony 
richer  than  Ockenheim's.  It  is  related  of  Obrecht  that  he 
possessed  so  much  facility  and  fire  of  invention  that  he  could 
compose  a  whole  mass  in  one  night.  Glareanus  affirms  that 
Obrecht  was  the  musical  instructor  of  the  learned  Erasmus. 

A  new  and  more  fruitful  epoch  is  represented  by  Josquin 
de  Pr6s,  who  was  the  greatest  musical  genius  of  his  age. 
Josquin  was  born  about  1445,  probably  at  Conde,  in  Hainaut. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Ockenheim.  His  musical  career  began  at 


MUSIC  IN  THE   NETHERLANDS  71 

Rome  as  a  singer  in  the  Papal  Choir  under  Sixtus  IV.  In 
1480  he  appeared  as  a  famous  musician  in  the  employ  of 
Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and  subsequently  he  became  the 
leading  singer  or  master  of  the  royal  chapel  of  Louis  XII 
of  France.  It  is  not  ascertained  how  long  he  remained  in  the 
service  of  that  sovereign.  Afterwards  he  was  chosen  court 
chapelmaster  of  Maximilian  I,  emperor  of  Germany,  but  he 
finally  returned  home  to  Conde,  where  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  was  provost  of  the  Cathedral  there  until  his 
death  in  1521. 

Josquin  became  the  musical  idol  of  Europe.  All  his  con- 
temporaries and  successors  were  unanimous  in  pronouncing 
him  as  endowed  with  extraordinary  powers  ;  and  this  is  cor- 
roborated not  only  by  the  masterly  compositions  he  has  left, 
but  also  by  the  troops  of  eminent  masters  whom  he  educated. 
His  popularity  was  so  great  that  his  music  fairly  superseded 
all  that  had  gone  before  it.  This  exclusive  admiration  was  so 
extravagant  that  in  the  Papal  Choir,  on  one  occasion,  a  favorite 
six-voiced  motet  was  thrown  aside  when  the  singers  learned 
it  was  not  by  Josquin,  as  they  had  supposed,  but  by  Adrian 
Willaert,  who  had  already  gained  celebrity. 

Josquin  did  not  open  a  new  path  in  music,  like  his  country-  Significance 
man,  Willaert,  the  founder  of  the  Venetian  school ;  neither  of  J°stlmn's 

'  '  work 

was  he  a  so-called  reformer,  like  Palestrina.  But  the  mate- 
rials which  his  predecessors  had  brought  together  he  con- 
verted into  organic,  finished,  and  expressive  forms  ;  and  in 
this  sense  he  was  a  genuine  reformer.  He  was  the  first  to 
master  thoroughly  the  art  of  elaborate  counterpoint,  which  he 
carried  to  its  utmost  limits,  —  to  a  development  from  whence 
music  might  take  a  new  direction.  The  subtle  ingenuity  dis- 
played by  him  in  his  canons  and  fugal  pieces  is  wonderful. 
Under  his  facile  guidance  the  most  involved  combinations 
gained  an  easy  and  playful  form,  and  all  his  works  bear  the 
stamp  of  originality  and  character.  It  may  be  asked  why 
Josquin's  music  is  neglected,  why  it  is  not  made  fully  known 


72  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

to  modern  hearers.  It  can  be  readily  answered  that  those 
works  which  were  solely  the  product  of  his  intellect  and  skill 
do  not  call  forth  our  sympathy  except  as  students  of  the  his- 
tory of  musical  forms,  but  by  far  the  greater  number  of  his 
compositions  are  worthy  of  admiration  to-day,  and  deserve 
a  place  among  the  best  music. 

The  defects  Josquin's  defects  are  noticeable  in  his  early  compositions, 
eariTcom1-18  m  t^ie  ^'T  canons  and  empty  harmonic  progressions  which 
positions  conformed  to  his  school  and  time.  He  was  tempted  to  per- 
form feats  of  skill  in  his  writings,  and  his  weak  imitators 
copied  his  faults  but  not  his  virtues.  It  was  during  his  day 
.  that  the  words  of  the  mass  were  most  neglected.  The  singers 
frequently  omitted  the  words  altogether,  or  replaced  them 
with  others  wholly  foreign.  Many  eminent  musicians  did  not 
scruple  to  compose  long  vocal  pieces  without  having  selected 
any  words  to  be  sung  to  them.  They  went  so  far  as  to  apply 
the  words  of  "  Ave  regina  "  to  one  voice,  "Alma  redemp- 
toris  "  to  another,  and  something  still  different  to  each  of  the 
remaining  voices  of  the  piece.  This  practice  of  combining 
all  sorts  of  incongruous  elements  was  in  favor  for  a  long  time, 
both  in  sacred  and  in  secular  music.  Such  potpourri,  made  up 
of  scraps  of  melody  and  verse  patched  together  like  a  beggar's 
garment,  were  named  "  Messanze  "  or  "  Quodlibets." 

Vulgar  and  very  offensive  words  were  sung  in  church,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  church  music  was  made  to  accompany 
dancing  and  other  gayeties.  We  learn  from  Baini  that  the 
composers  of  church  music  in  that  day  thought  they  had 
accomplished  something  meritorious  if  they  had  succeeded 
in  awakening  a  desire  to  dance  among  the  congregation.  In 
this  way  many  of  Josquin's  church  compositions  became  the 
entertainment  of  jovial  companions  ;  they  sang  his  masses 
and  danced  to  his  church  melodies.  This  is  corroborated  by 
Erasmus,  who  says  that  people  run  to  church  as  to  the 
theater  to  have  their  ears  tickled.  I  fear  their  criticism 
may  be  applied  with  some  pertinence  to  people  of  our  own 


MUSIC   IN   THE   NETHERLANDS  73 

day.  We  read  in  Baini's  life  of  Palestrina  that  it  was 
the  custom  in  Josquin's  day  to  color  the  notes  red,  green, 
black,  etc.,  according  to  the  meaning  of  particular  words. 
The  words  darkness,  thunder,  and  death  were  expressed  by 
black  notes  ;  plants,  meadow,  flowers,  by  green  notes  ;  the 
sun,  heavens,  wounds,  blood,  by  red  notes,  and  so  on.  This 
display  of  decorative  art  was  not  the  work  of  the  composer, 
however,  but  of  the  aesthetic  and  imaginative  copyists  of  the 
times. 

Let  us  now  turn  from  the  faults  of  Josquin  and  his  con-  His  merits 
temporaries  and  do  justice  to  his  merits  as  an  artist.  It  is  a  as  an  artlst 
singular  fact  that  Josquin,  notwithstanding  the  abuses  of  his 
time,  was  the  first  composer  who  gave  the  words  their  full 
expression.  His  best  masses  and  motets  are  faithful  expo- 
nents of  the  sacred  text,  and  are  pervaded  with  the  spirit  of 
religious  devotion.  He  discovered  the  true  aesthetic  value 
of  the  dissonance  as  a  means  of  musical  expression,  —  not 
merely  as  an  harmonic  device.  Josquin  used  dissonances  as 
suspended  notes  quite  freely  in  his  music,  and  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  profound  expression  to  the  words. 

"In  spite  of  the  constraint,"  says  Ambros,  "which  the 
church  ritual  and  the  artistic  conditions  of  the  age  inexorably 
imposed  on  him,  in  Josquin's  music  there  speaks  to  us  a  pure 
and  feeling  soul,  capable  of  stirring  the  very  depths  of  our 
nature.  It  may  be  true  that  he  carried  musical  artifices  and 
witticisms  to  an  extreme,  but,  nevertheless,  even  the  most 
trivial  of  his  works  bear  the  stamp  of  superior  genius,  when 
compared  with  the  endless  productions  of  his  contempo- 
raries and  imitators." 

Luther,  who  was  a  good  judge  of  music,  gives  his  testi- 
mony in  favor  of  Josquin  in  these  words  :  "  Josquin  is  master 
of  the  notes  ;  he  does  with  them  as  he  wills.  Other  masters 
of  song  must  do  as  the  notes  will  have  it  done.  His  music  is 
gladsome,  mild,  and  lovely,  and  not  forced,  nor  tied  down  to 
the  rules,  but  as  free  as  the  song  of  the  finch." 


74  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Although  Josquin  produced  numerous  works,  in  fertility  of 
genius  he  cannot  be  compared  with  his  great  successors 
Orlando  Lasso  and  Palestrina,  nor  with  many  of  his  own 
disciples.  He  was  too  severe  a  critic  of  himself ;  it  is  said 
that  he  reserved  many  compositions  for  years  before  letting 
them  be  heard,  and  meanwhile  did  not  spare  any  efforts  to 
alter  and  improve  them. 

A  rich  portion  of  his  works  has  been  preserved  to  the 
present  day.  There  are  nineteen  masses  in  print,  besides  a 
good  number  in  manuscript  kept  in  the  archives  of  the  Papal 
Chapel  at  Rome.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Petrucci  issued 
several  books  of  Josquin's  masses  and  motets,  psalms,  and 
chansons.  Josquin's  most  distinguished  contemporaries  were 
his  fellow-students  with  Ockenheim  —  De  la  Rue,  Brumel, 
Agricola,  Compere.  His  foreign  contemporaries  were  the 
French  master,  Genet,  and  the  German  masters,  Mahu  and 
Stoltzer.  Dietrich,  Meyer,  and  Crequillon  may  also  be  con- 
sidered as  musicians  of  his  time. 

His  most  prominent  followers  and  disciples  were  Mouton, 
Adrian  Coclicus,  the  theorist,  and  Nicolaus  Gombert ; 
Clemens  non  Papa,  De  Monte,  van  Berghem,  Waelrant,  and 
many  others  belong  to  this  productive  period.  His  most 
noted  French  followers  were  Jannequin  and  Arcadelt. 
Nicolaus  Perhaps  the  ablest  representative  of  the  progressive  musi- 

Gombert  cians  directly  succeeding  Josquin  was  his  pupil  Nicolaus 
Gombert  of  Bruges,  chapelmaster  of  Charles  V.  He  was  a 
wonderfully  prolific  and  masterly  composer,  and  was  not 
content  to  remain  a  mere  imitator  of  Josquin.  Finck,  the 
gifted  German  song  composer,  declared  that  Gombert  had 
created  music  separated  entirely  in  style  from  the  earlier 
school.  And  Baini  says  there  were  many  composers  of  that 
time  who  slavishly  and  mechanically  imitated  the  faults  of 
Josquin  without  being  penetrated  by  the  peculiar  spirit  and 
fire  of  his  genius.  Gombert  was  the  true  spiritual  successor 
of  Josquin ;  his  music  is  earnest  and  noble,  and  is  classed 


MUSIC   IN  THE  NETHERLANDS  75 

among  the  best  of  the  Netherland  school.  The  Netherlands, 
at  this  period,  were  in  many  respects  in  advance  of  the  rest  of 
Europe.  The  country  was  rich  and  prosperous  through  its  skill- 
ful artisans,  its  manufactures,  and  its  commerce.  This  mate- 
rial development  was  attended  by  a  corresponding  spiritual  one, 
and  marked  the  highest  attainment  of  mediaeval  civilization. 

Italy  in  the  fifteenth  century  had  emerged  from  the  Mid-  Influence  of 
die  Ages,  but  in  Germany  and  particularly  in  the  Nether-  [and^on1" 
lands   the  old   customs   and    manners    lasted    much   longer,   other 
During  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Netherland  countnes 
school  reached  the  full  tide  of  its  glory ;  we  read  name  after 
name  of  famous  composers,  theorists,  and  singers.    Their  fame 
and  influence  spread  far  and  wide ;  in  Rome  the  Papal  Choir 
was  for  a  long  time  composed  almost  exclusively  of  Nether- 
land masters  and  singers,  while  in  France,  England,  and  Ger- 
many there  arose  a  number  of  distinguished  native  masters, 
under  their  example  and  instruction. 

The  most  celebrated  French  masters  of  that  age  were 
Jannequin,  Certon,  Maillard,  Coclicus,  Arcadelt,  and  Claude 
Goudimel,  the  teacher  of  Palestrina. 

Clement  Jannequin  was  the  most  original  master  of  this  Clement 
French  school.    He  was  a  clever  contrapuntist  and  composer  Descriptive' 
of  masses  and  motets  ;  but  his  favorite  style  was  displayed  in  music 
some  curious  descriptive  pieces,  which  quite  outrival  modern 
attempts  like  the  "  Battle  of  Prague  "  and  the  oft-repeated 
"thunder  storm"  of  modern  organists.    In  one  of  his  pieces 
he  describes  in  tones  the  tumult  of  a  Paris  street.    We  hear 
the  voices  of  the  petty  tradesmen,  the  familiar  cries  of  "  Buy 
my  fish,  shoes,  pastry,"  etc.,  from  the  hucksters  as  they  offer 
their  tempting  wares  to  the  passers-by. 

Such  descriptive  music  was  very  common  in  that  age. 
"They  did  not  have  any  aesthetic  scruples,"  says  von  Dom- 
mer,  "as  to  whether  they  were  overstepping  the  limits  of  art 
like  the  composers  of  programme  music  in  our  day,  but  went 
to  work  more  ingenuously.  They  set  music  to  the  coats  of 


76  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

arms  of  their  patrons,  wrote  canons  having  for  their  subject 
rivers,  mountains,  towers,  etc. ;  but  battles  were  the  particular 
object  of  their  fancy.  Jannequin  painted  in  this  way  the 
battle  of  Marignano,  with  the  calls  of  command,  the  trumpet 
signals,  the  roll  of  musketry,  the  lively  march  with  drum 
and  fife,  the  clatter  of  sabers,  the  whistling  of  bullets  ;  then 
came  the  flight  of  the  enemy,  cursing  and  making  barbarous 
outcries  which  were  finally  drowned  by  the  triumphant  shouts 
of  the  victors,  crying,  "  Victory  !  victory  !  for  the  noble  king 
of  France !  "  All  this  was  accomplished  by  human  voices, 
and  must  have  had  an  indescribable  effect.  Such  music  may 
appear  childish  to  our  minds,  but  at  all  events  it  answered  one 
purpose  in  that  age,  —  it  showed  what  the  art  was  capable  of, 
and  enabled  it  to  appropriate  whatever  would  tend  to  enrich 
its  effects. 

The  age  of  the  Netherland  music  was  fruitful  in  musical 
literature.  Johannes  Tinctoris  was  one  of  the  ablest  theorists 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  His  "  Diffinitorium  "  is  the  oldest 
dictionary  of  musical  terms  extant.  Other  noted  writers  were 
Gafor,  or  Gaferius,  and  Adam  de  Fulda. 

Printing  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  well  to  speak  of  an  important 

able  type  invention  made  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
which  was  of  untold  value  to  the  art  of  music,  —  the  inven- 
tion of  printing  music  with  movable  metal  types,  originated 
by  Ottaviano  dei  Petrucci  of  Fossombrone.  This  invention 
served  as  important  a  purpose  for  the  spread  of  music  and 
musical  knowledge  as  was  accomplished  for  general  literature 
by  the  art  of  book  printing.  To  print  notes  from  wooden 
tables,  as  hitherto  had  been  the  practice,  was  a  slow  and 
laborious  process.  This  new  invention  enabled  the  printers 
to  set  up  types  and  strike  off  copies  with  readiness  and 
dispatch. 

The  numerous  masters  of  the  Netherland  school  with  their 
German  and  French  contemporaries  were  destined  to  become 
universally  known  and  appreciated  in  their  printed  works  ;  had 


MUSIC   IN  THE   NETHERLANDS  77 

it  not  been  for  this  good  fortune  we  might  never  have  known 
of  their  existence,  though  I  fear  they  are  hardly  as  well 
known  as  they  deserve  to  be,  notwithstanding  Petrucci  and 
his  metal  types. 

The  outline  which  I  have  attempted  to  trace  of  the  history 
of  music  during  the  fifteenth  century  and  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  may  serve  to  show  what  a  wonderful  and  rapid  evolu- 
tion was  taking  place  in  musical  life  and  experience ;  and  we 
are  now  prepared  to  witness  a  grand  culmination  of  a  cappella 
music  in  the  works  of  its  greatest  representative  composers, 
Palestrina  and  Orlando  Lasso. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  ITALIAN  MASTERS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 

Italy  has  long  been  loved  and  admired  as  the  birthplace  of 
modern  literature  and  art,  as  the  land  of  the  renaissance  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  In  music,  however, 
during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  another  land 
claims  our  homage  for  working  out  the  problem  of  counter- 
point. Yet,  although  the  Netherland  composers  surpassed  all 
others  in  the  mastery  of  elaborate  church  music,  Italy  was  not 
wholly  without  good  native  musicians,  who,  in  their  compara- 
tively inferior  position,  were  preparing  the  ground  for  great 
masters  like  Palestrina  and  Gabrieli. 

Netherland  counterpoint  rested  on  the  na'fve  but  rude  songs 
of  the  people,  while  the  earliest  Italian  music,  except  the 
Gregorian,  was  set  to  refined  poetry,  and  the  airs,  therefore, 
were  not  borrowed,  but  entirely  original.  The  Italians  by  in- 
nate capacity  or  disposition  were  prone  to  greater  simplicity 
of  expression,  a  richer  flow  of  melody,  and  a  more  faithful 
rhythmical  adherence  to  the  metrical  structure  of  the  verses 
than  Flemish  composers,  whose  attention  was  absorbed  in  the 
treatment  of  the  counterpoint. 

Forms  of          The  most  common  forms  of  secular  music  in  Italy  during 
secular         ^e  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  were  the  frottola,  the 

music  in  ' 

Italy  villota,  or  villanella,  and  the  madrial,  or  madrigal.    The  frot- 

tole  were  four-part  songs  of  a  gay  and  trivial  description, 
generally  popular  street  songs ;  but  some  of  them  were  more 
earnest  and  sentimental,  being  set  to  good  poetry. 

The  villote,  or  villanelle,  were  peasant's  songs  originally,  as 
the  name  implies.  They  resembled  the  frottole,  but  were 
more  extended  and  artistic.  The  villote  alia  Napoletana  were 

78 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH   CENTURY      79 

the  most  artistic  of  this  class,  but  were  often  set  to  frivolous 
words.  The  madrigal  was  known  as  early  as  the  fourteenth 
century,  but  it  did  not  rise  into  universal  prominence  as  the 
representative  form  of  secular  music  before  Willaert's  day. 

The  word  "  madrigal "  is  probably  derived  from  mandra,  a 
flock  of  sheep,  and  originally  denoted  a  shepherd's  song.  There 
were  other  favorite  vocal  pieces  of  a  more  general  character, 
which  were  composed  in  agreement  with  a  chosen  meter  to 
which  the  poem  was  afterwards  set.  The  name  given  to  this 
kind  of  composition  was  modus,  or  air,  and  from  this  source 
was  derived  the  modern  name  "  air,"  or  "  aria,"  which  signifies 
the  manner  of  singing  (as  we  say  a  person  has  a  certain  air  or 
manner),  and  does  not  refer,  as  many  suppose,  to  the  medium 
of  song,  —  that  is,  the  sound  of  vibrating  air.  These  forms 
of  secular  song  were  inspired  undoubtedly  by  the  beautiful 
poetry  which  enriched  Italian  life  at  that  period,  —  the  age  of 
Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio. 

Petrucci  published  (1504-1508)  as  many  as  eight  books  of 
frottole,  some  nine  hundred  numbers  in  all.  These  are  charac- 
teristic though  primitive  examples  of  Italian  music,  and  mark 
the  essential  difference  between  it  and  Flemish  music.  The 
latter,  like  the  Gothic  architecture  of  the  North,  was  devel- 
oped organically  from  germs  or  motives,  while  the  former  cor- 
responds to  the  simpler  forms,  —  the  grand  curves  and  arches 
of  Roman  churches,  within  whose  walls  the  pure  and  elevated 
harmonies  of  Palestrina  have  resounded  through  the  centuries. 
As  Rome  was  the  center  of  civilization  in  the  Middle  Ages,  so 
it  was  likewise  the  central  point  of  the  musical  world,  even 
before  Italy  gained  the  ascendency  through  the  genius  of  her 
native  composers. 

The  Papal  Choir  was  for  ages  the  most  important  musical  The  Papal 
organization  in  the  world.    Its  history,  in  truth,  embraces  the 
history  of  church  music.    During  the  Middle  Ages  it  per- 
formed an  invaluable  service  for  the  advancement  of  music. 
It  gave  liberal  support  to  the  most  gifted  singers,  theorists, 


8o  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  composers  of  Europe.  The  members  of  the  Papal  Choir 
were  treated  with  the  honor  which  their  ability  deserved. 
They  were  clothed  with  the  rank  of  a  sacerdotal  college. 
At  St.  Mark's  in  Venice  the  composers  and  singers  occupied 
an  equally  honorable  official  position. 

The  Papal  Choir  was  composed  of  different  nationalities. 
They  represented  separately  special  branches  of  the  art :  the 
Spaniards  were  distinguished  as  falsetto  singers,  and  sang  the 
soprano  parts ;  the  French  were  noted  as  clever  teachers  as 
well  as  composers ;  the  Flemings,  who  stood  in  the  fore- 
ground, were  remarkable  as  theorists  and  composers ;  the 
Italians  ultimately  excelled  in  all  these  branches,  although 
for  a  while  they  were  humble  learners. 

Women  not  According  to  ecclesiastical  law,  women  were  not  allowed  to 
sinjTin  '  s*nS  in  church,  probably  in  obedience  to  St.  Paul,  who  wrote, 
church  "  Let  your  women  keep  silence  in  the  churches."  The  soprano 
and  contralto  parts  were  performed  by  male  falsetto  singers, 
—  castrati,  or  boys.  Under  the  brilliant  reigns  of  Pope 
Julius  II  and  his  successor  Leo  X,  — the  patrons  of  Raphael 
and  Michael  Angelo, —  many  eminent  Flemish  musicians  were 
invited  to  Italy.  Their  supremacy  at  this  moment  was  com- 
plete, but  the  time  was  rapidly  approaching  when  native 
genius  would  assert  itself  and  the  musical  scepter  pass  into 
the  hands  of  the  Italians.  We  have  already  learned  that  a 
reaction  took  place  within  the  Netherland  school,  as  exhibited 
in  the  works  of  Josquin,  Gombert,  Willaert,  and  others.  These 
masters  were  cultivating  the  ground  in  Italy  for  such  masters 
as  Palestrina  and  Gabrieli. 

The  only  Italian  master  worthy  of  special  mention  prior  to 
Palestrina  was  Costanzo  Festa,  papal  singer  in  1517.  Among 
the  foreigners  in  the  Papal  Choir  were  the  Spanish  masters 
Morales,  Escobedo,  Scribano,  and  the  learned  theorist  Fran- 
cesco Salinas.  Morales  was  thoroughly  grounded  in  Flemish 
counterpoint ;  his  works  display  originality  and  possess  the 
fire  of  a  true  Spaniard. 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH   CENTURY      8 1 

The  most  distinguished  Franco-Flemish  masters  at  Rome 
were  Arcadelt  and  Goudimel.  Arcadelt  was  a  very  productive 
composer.  He  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  madrigal 
style,  with  Willaert  and  Verdelot. 

Claude  Goudimel,  the  teacher  of  Palestrina,  was  born  at  Claude 
Vaison,  in  Flanders,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
founded  a  school  of  music  in  Rome,  at  which  a  number  of 
celebrated  Italian  composers  were  taught,  among  whom  were 
Palestrina,  Animuccia,  Nanini,  Bettini,  and  Alessandro  della 
Viola.  Goudimel  was  distinguished  not  only  as  a  teacher  but 
as  a  composer.  He  was  the  author  of  the  melodies  set  to  the 
psalter  of  Marot  and  Beza,  the  French  Calvinists.  The  melody 
of  "  Old  Hundred  "  has  erroneously  been  attributed  to  him. 
He  fell  a  victim  to  religious  persecution,  was  murdered  as 
a  Huguenot  at  Lyons  on  St.  Bartholomew's  night  (1572), 
and  his  body  thrown  into  the  Rhone. 

Other  eminent  composers  and  singers  in  Rome  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  Ferrabosco,  the  French 
masters  Barre  and  Carpentras,  and  the  Flemish  masters 
Dankerts  and  van  Berghem  of  Antwerp. 

Giovanni  Pierluigi  was  born  in  1514.  He  was  called  Pales-  Palestrina 
trina  after  his  birthplace,  a  small,  ancient  town  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rome.  His  family  name  was  Sante.  Very  little  is  known  of 
his  early  life.  He  was  sent  to  Rome  to  complete  his  musical 
education  under  Goudimel.  In  1551  he  was  appointed  master 
of  the  boy  singers  and  chapelmaster  at  the  Vatican  Basilica, 
as  successor  to  Roselli.  Soon  after  this  he  composed  several 
four-part  and  five-part  masses  which  were  dedicated  to  Pope 
Julius  III.  This  led  to  his  call  to  the  College  of  Singers  in 
the  Papal  Choir,  though  he  was  not  a  priest  and  was  a  married 
man,  which  was  contrary  to  the  rules  of  membership. 

Paul  IV,  who  ascended  the  papal  throne  in  1555,  issued  an 
order  that  the  three  married  men  who  lived  in  company  with 
the  singers  of  the  Papal  Choir  to  the  scandal  of  God's  service 
and  the  sacred  laws  of  the  church  should  be  expelled  from 


82 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


The  "Im- 
properia" 


Agitation 
for  a  return 
to  Grego- 
rian song 


the  college.  These  three  singers  were  Palestrina,  Barr6,  and 
Ferrabosco.  When  Palestrina  was  informed  of  this  sentence 
he  was  seized  with  a  violent  illness  which  lasted  for  more  than 
two  months.  During  the  same  year,  however,  he  was  appointed 
director  of  music  at  the  Church  of  St.  John  Lateran.  He  held 
this  position  for  more  than  five  years,  — an  important  period, 
for  he  worked  assiduously  and  composed  a  number  of  works 
which  were  the  first  fruits  of  his  genius.  It  was  during  this 
period  that  he  composed  the  work  which  bears  the  title  of 
"  Improperia."  It  proved  to  be  the  foundation  of  his  fame, 
and  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  three  hundred  years  is  still 
sung  every  Passion  Week  by  the  Papal  Choir.  This  simple 
composition,  which  consists  of  a  succession  of  chaste  concords 
combined  skillfully  and  effectively  for  the  voices,  is  animated 
with  the  very  spirit  of  religious  devotion.  Baini  applies  to  it 
the  words  of  St.  Bernard,  "  This  is  the  song  which  I  sought 
as  worthy  of  the  temple  of  the  Most  High,  as  sweet  yet  not 
trivial,  but  a  noble  song  which  pleases  the  ear  and  moves 
the  heart." 

In  1561  Palestrina  was  appointed  chapelmaster  of  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  It  was  during  the  next  few 
years  that  the  effort  was  made  to  banish  figural  or  contrapuntal 
music  from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  return  to  the 
exclusive  use  of  unison  Gregorian  song.  The  question  was 
fully  discussed  at  the  Council  of  Trent  (1562),  but  without 
reaching  any  definite  decision.  Two  years  later,  Pope  Pius  IV, 
who  was  an  ardent  lover  of  music,  appointed  a  commission  of 
eight  cardinals  and  eight  singers  of  the  Papal  Choir  to  give 
attention  to  this  matter.  They  held  several  meetings  in  which 
it  was  debated  whether  the  sacred  words  sung  by  the  choir 
could  be  rendered  more  clearly  audible.  The  singers  repre- 
sented that  it  was  not  always  practicable  to  make  the  words 
perfectly  distinct,  owing  to  the  fugal  imitations  in  the  counter- 
point, and  that  to  abolish  counterpoint  would  be  equivalent  to 
the  destruction  of  musical  art. 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      83 

The  cardinals  cited  a  "  Te  Deum  "  by  Festa,  the  "  Impro- 
peria,"  and  a  quartet  from  a  mass  by  Palestrina  as  music 
in  which  every  syllable  of  the  text  could  be  heard.  The 
singers  replied  that  those  pieces  were  short,  whereas  a  Gloria 
or  Credo  could  not  be  composed  in  a  corresponding  style. 
They  agreed,  however,  to  banish  from  the  choir  all  masses 
and  motets  composed  on  secular  melodies,  and  all  foreign 
words  introduced  into  the  texts.  Finally,  they  decided  to 
make  trial  of  a  composition  to  be  written  in  a  simple, 
elevated  style,  in  which  the  words  when  sung  should  be 
rendered  perfectly  intelligible.  Palestrina  was  invited  to  write  Palestrina's 
a  mass  for  this  purpose.  In  response  to  this  call  he  composed 
three  six-part  masses.  On  the  completion  of  the  masses  the 
papal  singers  were  invited  to  sing  them  before  the  cardinals. 
The  company  gave  their  undivided  attention  to  these  works. 
Their  interest  grew  more  and  more  intense  as  the  performance 
went  on,  and  the  third  mass  in  G,  in  particular,  received 
enthusiastic  applause.  It  is  asserted  that  Palestrina  thus  won 
a  victory  which  established  his  world- wide  fame,  and  that 
henceforth  no  one  thought  seriously  of  abandoning  figural 
music.  He  was  called  the  "  Saviour  of  Music  "  ;  yet  this  is 
not  strictly  true.  His  style  was  considered  as  the  model  for 
centuries,  and  stile  Palestrina  was  the  name  given  to  a  cappella 
music.  The  famous  mass  in  G  was  dedicated  to  Marcellus  II, 
Palestrina's  former  patron,  and  it  bears  the  title,  "  Missa 
Papae  Marcelli." 

Pope  Pius  IV  is  said  to  have  remarked  of  this  work,  "  These 
are  like  the  harmonies  of  the  new  high  song  which  the 
Apostle  John  once  heard  in  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  and  of 
which  another  John  has  given  us  a  conception,  in  this  earthly 
Jerusalem."  The  Pope  rewarded  the  author  by  creating  for 
him  the  office  of  composer  to  the  Papal  Choir,  and  other  honor- 
able positions  were  subsequently  opened  to  him.  He  died  in 
1594,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's.  An  inscription  on  his 
tombstone  styles  him  the  "  Prince  of  Musicians." 


84  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Palestrina,  like  most  great  masters,  was  a  remarkably  pro- 
ductive composer.  The  list  of  his  works  embraces  many 
volumes  of  masses,  motets,  lamentations,  litanies,  hymns, 
magnificats,  sacred  and  secular  madrigals.  Baini,  in  his  biog- 
raphy of  the  master,  which  is  valuable  to  the  student  in  spite 
of  its  unreasonable  hero-worship,  claims  for  Palestrina  no  less 
than  ten  different  styles,  corresponding  to  the  various  stages 
of  his  career.  But  this  refinement  of  criticism  is  worthless. 
We  merely  observe  in  the  works  of  Palestrina,  as  in  those  of 
other  musicians,  traces  of  the  growth  of  his  individuality,  but 
fail  to  perceive  any  such  sharply  marked  transformations  of 
style  that  they  may  be  counted  off  on  the  fingers. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  Palestrina  was  partly  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  a  reformation  in  church  music,  but 
Baini  wrests  the  facts  of  history  out  of  their  proper  bearing 
when  he  states  that  Palestrina  worked  out  a  great  reform 
almost  single-handed.  The  music  of  Josquin,  Gombert,  Wil- 
laert,  Festa,  De  Rore,  Andrea  Gabrieli,  Goudimel,  and  yet 
more  notably  that  of  Orlando  Lasso,  shows  that  the  sacred 
text  was  no  longer  abused  and  neglected  by  composers.  The 
style  of  counterpoint  was  growing  more  simple  and  chaste. 
The  so-called  stile  familiare  of  Josquin,  or  counterpoint  note 
against  note,  had  become  universal  and  was  leading  the  way 
to  modern  music  through  the  adoption  of  chromatic  intervals 
by  masters  of  the  Venetian  school. 

Significance  Palestrina  achieved  no  reform,  but  he  prevented  a  retro- 
gressi°n  m  music.  By  a  turn  of  good  fortune  unparalleled  in 
musical  history,  he  was  the  means  of  saving  counterpoint  from 
being  ignominiously  abolished  from  the  Roman  Church.  If 
such  a  foolish  step  had  been  taken,  Italian  church  music 
would  never  have  reached  a  state  of  high  cultivation,  and  the 
world  would  have  lost  many  beautiful  manifestations  of  genius. 
In  Protestant  Germany  and  England,  however,  counterpoint 
would  undoubtedly  have  made  further  progress,  but  probably 
in  a  less  artistic  form. 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      85 

In  considering  Palestrina  from  an  artistic  standpoint,  he  is 
the  highest  representative  of  old  church  music.  His  pure  and 
elevated  conceptions  found  appropriate  expression  in  types  of 
form  perfectly  suited  to  the  tonal  system  of  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries.  The  inflexibility  of  that  system  demanded 
a  certain  obedience  of  the  composer.  A  church  mode  once 
chosen,  — as,  for  instance,  the  Phrygian,  Dorian,  Lydian,  etc., 
—  forced  the  composer  almost  into  its  own  peculiar  mood, 
and  for  this  reason,  mediaeval  music,  as  long  as  it  was  bound 
down  to  the  typical  church  modes,  lacked  much  of  the  free 
expression  of  the  music  of  the  present  era.  The  individual 
traits  and  idiosyncrasies  of  the  artist  could  not  be  so  sharply 
outlined.  This  objective  character  of  mediaeval  music,  how- 
ever, had  its  great  attributes  ;  it  was  in  harmony  with  the  age 
and  its  religion.  The  church  gave  it  birth,  and  under  her 
motherly  care  it  grew  up  to  power  and  influence.  Notwith- 
standing the  frequent  absence  of  tonality,  or  the  adherence  to 
a  chosen  key  with  its  relatives,  and  in  spite  of  the  want  of 
connection  between  foreign  triads,  and  abrupt  transitions  from 
one  to  another,  the  best  a  cappella  music  of  that  age  will 
always  be  interesting.  This  is  additional  proof  that  all  genuine 
and  inspired  works  of  the  mind  and  heart  of  man  are  of  inter- 
est in  every  age,  and  do  not  lose  their  significance  with  the 
changes  of  fashion 

Palestrina  will  always  hold  a  place  among  the  greatest  Estimates 
artists.    No  matter  how  far  removed  men  may  be  from  the  music 
spirit  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  there  is  in  his  music  some- 
thing that  calls  forth  our  highest  admiration,  something  that 
lifts  us  above  ourselves.    In  the  words  of  Leopold  von  Ranke  : 

Who  can  listen  to  his  beautiful  works  and  not  feel  his  soul  stirred 
within  him?  It  is  as  if  nature  became  endowed  with  tone  and  voice,  as 
though  the  elements  spoke  and  the  sounds  of  universal  life  mingled  in 
spontaneous  harmony  to  hallow  and  adore,  now  undulating  like  the  sea, 
now  soaring  heavenward  in  exulting  bursts  of  jubilee.  The  soul  is  borne 
aloft  to  the  regions  of  religious  ecstasy,  on  the  wings  of  universal 
sympathy. 


86  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

It  is  not  ardent  Catholics  alone  who  appreciate  Palestrina's 
music,  though  it  is  certain  that  a  part  of  his  power  is  due  to 
the  grandeur  and  solemnity  of  the  Roman  churches,  and  to  the 
liturgy,  which  is  itself  a  great  work  of  art.  But  his  music, 
like  all  genuine  music,  stands  above  the  opinions  and  creeds 
of  religious  sects. 

Analysis  of  It  is  easy  to  feel  the  ideal  beauty  embodied  in  the  works 
Palestrina  °^  Palestrina,  just  as  it  is  in  other  forms  of  perfect  art,  but 
it  is  difficult  to  express  in  words  the  secret  of  their  magic 
power.  The  true  listener  perceives  in  this  wonderful  music 
peculiar  characteristics  which  render  it  the  greatest  of  all 
purely  polyphonic  vocal  music.  He  finds  the  contours,  or  out- 
lines, of  the  single  voices  of  wonderful  refinement  and  beauty  ; 
it  is  a  world  of  ideal  shapes  and  figures  so  combined  with 
pure  sweetness  of  tones  and  harmonies  that  we  are  transported 
to  a  higher  sphere,  above  all  human  passions.  The  technical 
musician  appreciates  the  masterly  treatment  of  the  form  of 
the  composition.  Where  the  composer  avails  himself  of  the 
learned  artifices  which  the  Netherland  masters  employed  in 
earlier  times,  they  are  not  placed  in  the  foreground ;  they 
appear  natural  and  simple,  and  have  a  higher  meaning.  The 
weaving  of  the  voices  does  not  lead  to  confusion  and  lack  of 
clearness.  All  polyphonic  music  has  its  origin  in  melody,  lives 
and  has  its  being  in  melody  —  the  harmony  is  only  the  result 
of  simultaneous  melodies.  The  harmony  is  not  the  object  but 
the  result.  The  prime  object  is  the  symmetrical  leading  of 
the  several  individual  voices.  This  is  true  of  Palestrina,  as  of 
other  masters  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

"  Palestrina's  music,  to  express  it  in  a  word,"  says  Ambros, 
"  breathes  the  beatitude  of  worship,  the  blessedness  of  adora- 
tion." This  true  appreciation  of  the  Roman  school,  however, 
requires  a  special  training.  "The  music  before  1600,"  to 
quote  somewhat  freely  from  Ambros,  "is  in  comparison  with 
music  after  that  date  a  foreign  idiom,  which  must  be  learned. 
A  half  knowledge  is  worse  than  no  knowledge.  Representative 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH   CENTURY      87 

works  like  the  'Pope  Marcellus  Mass,'  the  'Well-Tempered 
Clavichord,'  and  the  '  Heroic  Symphony '  are  very  different 
from  each  other,  in  fact,  as  far  apart  as  the  poles.  .  .  .  The 
music  of  Palestrina  is  not  music  for  the  concert  room,  the 
salon,  or  the  circle  of  refined  amateurs  :  it  is  purely  music  for 
the  church  — and  the  Roman  Church,  by  which  it  was  inspired 
and  for  which  it  was  created.  .  .  .  Its  true  place  is  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  where  Michael  Angelo's  sibyls  and  prophets  look  down, 
where  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things  —  the  creation  and 
destruction  of  the  world  —  are  brought  in  dreadful  pictures  be- 
fore our  eyes.  Above  the  thunder  of  the  Judgment  the  tones 
are  spanned  as  a  glowing  rainbow.  The  titanic  painter  speaks 
of  the  justice  of  the  living  God,  but  the  musician  speaks  of 
divine  love  and  mercy,  and  of  the  pure  harmony  of  eternal 
blessedness." 

In  Rome  Palestrina' s  most  eminent  contemporaries  were   His  con- 
Animuccia,  Vittoria,  Nanini,  and  Luca  Marenzio,  the  greatest  ancUuc* 
of  madrigal  composers.    The  Roman  style,  or  stile  Palestrina,  cessors 
was  called  the  elevated  style,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  elabo- 
rate style  of  the  Netherland  school  and  the  later  beautiful  or 
florid  style  of  the  Neapolitans.    It  was  fully  established  before 
the  death  of  Palestrina.    The  most  distinguished  followers  and 
descendants  of  this  style  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  were  Anerio,  Allegri,   Cifra,   Valentini,  Abbatini, 
Ugolini,  Agostini,  Domenico  and  Virgilio  Mazzocchi,  Benevoli, 
Bernabei,   Steffani,  Corelli,   Pasquini,   Gasparini,    Carissimi, 
Pitoni,  and  others. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  dra- 
matic style  began  to  eclipse  a  cappella  music,  and  thenceforth 
Roman  church  music  has  lived  only  in  its  past  greatness.  Of 
all  the  contemporaries  of  Palestrina  no  one  could  be  called 
his  rival  except  Orlando  Lasso,  the  greatest  master  of  the 
Netherland  school. 

Orlando  Lasso  "was  born  at  Mons  in  Hainaut  in  1520,  the   Orlando 
year  that  Charles  V  was  crowned  as  emperor  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.     ass 


88  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

His  original  name  was  Roland  de  Lattre,  but  he  changed  it 
because  his  father  had  been  sentenced  for  the  crime  of 
counterfeiting  money.  When  he  was  a  boy  of  sixteen  he  ac- 
companied the  nobleman  Ferdinando  de  Gonzaga  to  Milan  and 
Sicily ;  after  remaining  for  two  years  at  Naples  he  went  to 
Rome,  where,  in  1541,  he  was  appointed  chapelmaster  at  the 
Church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  a  very  high  post  for  a  youth  of 
twenty-one  years.  Although  his  reputation  increased  rapidly, 
he  abandoned  this  position  at  the  end  of  two  years  on  learning 
of  the  dangerous  illness  of  his  parents,  and  hurried  back  to 
his  native  land,  but  on  his  arrival  found  that  they  were  dead. 
Homeless  and  afflicted,  he  went  to  England  and  France,  and 
afterwards  spent  several  years  at  Antwerp.  His  reputation 
meanwhile  was  steadily  growing,  and  in  1557  he  was  invited 
to  the  court  of  Duke  Albert  V  of  Bavaria,  who  appointed  him 
chapelmaster.  Through  the  splendor  of  Lasso's  genius  this 
position  became  one  of  the  first  in  Europe.  He  brought  into 
the  duke's  service  many  of  the  best  singers  and  players  of 
that  time.  His  choir  and  orchestra  consisted  of  sixty  singers 
and  thirty  performers,  fully  able  to  perform  the  most  difficult 
compositions  to  his  satisfaction. 

His  honors  Lasso  soon  became  a  man  of  European  celebrity ;  he  was 
the  favorite  and  friend  of  monarchs  and  princes,  who  rivaled 
each  other  in  bestowing  on  him  testimonials  of  honor.  The 
Emperor  Maximilian  conferred  on  him  titles  of  nobility,  the 
king  of  France  made  him  Knight  of  Malta,  Pope  Gregory  XIII 
made  him  Knight  of  the  Golden  Spur,  and  a  medal  was  struck 
in  his  honor  on  which  were  stamped  the  very  flattering  words, 
Hie  ille  est  Lassus  qui  lassum  recreat  orb  em  (This  is  that 
weary  one  who  refreshes  the  weary  world).  He  was  called  the 
musical  phoenix  of  his  age,  the  "Prince  of  Musicians";  and 
all  other  masters  of  the  sixteenth  century,  except  Palestrina, 
were  obscured  by  his  fame.  His  compositions  were  in  such 
demand  that  even  during  his  lifetime  it  was  a  matter  of  pride 
to  be  the  fortunate  possessor  of  the  least  of  his  manuscripts. 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF   SIXTEENTH   CENTURY      89 

Lasso  remained  faithfully  at  his  post  at  Munich  until  his  death 
in  1594,  —  about  four  months  after  the  death  of  Palestrina. 

Lasso  is  reputed  to  have  been  a  polished  and  handsome 
man,  whose  amiable  disposition,  noble  character,  and  culti- 
vated mind  rendered  his  society  highly  prized.  He  lived  in 
daily  intercourse  with  men  who  were  distinguished  either 
by  their  learning,  intelligence,  or  birth.  But  amidst  all  the 
honors  bestowed  on  him,  he  remained  modest  and  retiring,  — 
a  mark  of  true  greatness.  A-- 

Lasso  was   a  wonderfully   prolific   composer.    His  works   Lasso's 
number,  according  to  Delmotte,  his  biographer,  some  2337  tio^f01 
compositions :    they   have    been  collected   and   preserved  in 
the  Royal  Library  at  Munich.     His  sacred  music  consisted 
of  masses,  motets,  psalms,  hymns,  lamentations,  magnificats, 
litanies,  and  over  four  hundred  Latin  and  German  canticles ; 
in  all  more  than  fifteen  hundred  compositions.    The  remainder 
of  his  works  are  secular  madrigals,  chansons,  villanelle,  and 
other  Latin  and  German  vocal  pieces. 

Lasso  betrays  his  Flemish  origin  in  his  church  music,  and  The  cosmo- 
therefore  is  rightly  classed  with  the  composers  of  his  native  character  of 
country,  —  the  last  and  greatest  of  that  school.  But  he  is  his  work 
more  than  this  :  he  is  a  true  cosmopolitan  in  music,  and  on 
this  account  has  been  called  the  Mozart  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Like  that  wonderful  genius  he  was  a  universal  master. 
He  united  harmoniously  the  different  national  styles  in  a 
natural  and  original  style  of  his  own.  In  his  masses  he 
appears  as  a  Flemish  master,  and  shows  an  inclination  toward 
a  complex  treatment  of  the  voices.  In  his  motets,  however, 
he  dispenses  with  the  tiresome  cantus  firmus  and  evinces  an 
unusually  refined  taste.  His  a  cappella  style  reminds  us  of 
Palestrina,  and  although  his  harmonies  may  not  always  pos- 
sess the  chaste  and  severe  purity  of  the  Roman  master,  yet 
in  the  massive  strength  and  grandeur  of  his  musical  concep- 
tions Lasso  is  fully  his  equal.  He  was  always  ready  to  adopt 
the  latest  innovations  in  music,  and  although  he  was  not  the 


90  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

originator  of  chromatic  melody  and  other  novel  effects  of  his 
day,  he  boldly  used  them  in  some  of  his  pieces.  It  is  said 
that  he  was  the  first  composer  to  introduce  the  major  third  in 
the  closing  chord  of  a  composition.  Hitherto  only  the  octave 
or  the  octave  with  the  fifth  were  allowed. 

Criticism  Burney  and  Baini  have  greatly  underrated  the  genius  of 

Lasso.  The  former  calls  him  "  a  dwarf  on  stilts,"  the  latter 
holds  him  to  be  "a  soulless  and  spiritless  Netherlander." 
But  more  enlightened  and  impartial  critics,  who  are  not 
wedded  to  pet  theories  or  favorites,  speak  in  other  terms. 
Proske  in  his  introduction  to  the  "  Musica  Divina"  remarks: 

In  his  works  may  be  discerned  the  traits  of  an  epic  dramatic  force 
and  truth  which  seem  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  a  Dante  or  a  Michael 
Angelo.  If  Palestrina  can  be  compared  with  Raphael,  Lasso  may  be 
classed  with  the  great  Florentine  artist  and  poet.  Equally  great  in 
church  and  secular  music,  Lasso  absorbed  the  nationality  of  all  the 
European  music  of  his  time,  which  no  longer  appeared  as  special 
Flemish,  Italian,  German,  or  French  music,  but,  impressed  with  his 
own  spirit,  was  formed  into  a  characteristic,  united  whole. 

Lasso's  full  significance  as  a  representative  musician  has 
not  yet  been  measured,  for  the  greater  number  of  his  compo- 
sitions are  still  unpublished.  He  is  worthy  of  better  treat- 
ment, and  a  biographer  is  yet  to  come  who  will  throw  a  clear 
light  on  the  master's  life  and  works. 


CHAPTER   VII 

VENETIAN  MASTERS  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 

Venice  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  as  peculiarly  and 
richly  endowed  with  men  of  genius  in  music  as  in  painting 
and  architecture.  The  world  is  never  weary  of  praising  the 
unique  beauty  of  Venetian  art,  the  warm  coloring  of  its  paint- 
ings, and  the  splendor  of  its  churches  and  palaces.  Venetian 
music  deserves  as  much  praise  for  its  glow  of  color  and  beauty 
of  design,  yet  is  now  sadly  neglected. 

The  grand  Church  of  St.  Mark  was  the  center  of  Venetian  Church  of 
music,  just  as  the  Papal  Choir  was  the  center  of  musical  life 


at  Rome.  In  the  ninth  century  organs  were  used  in  Venice,  Venetian 
owing  to  its  proximity  to  the  East,  whence  the  first  organs 
came.  We  do  not  find  any  historical  proof,  however,  that  the 
public  church  authorities  of  the  city  took  any  special  interest 
in  church  music  earlier  than  the  fourteenth  century.  The  name 
of  Zucchetto  is  recorded  as  organist  of  St.  Mark's  in  1318. 
Since  his  time  the  record  of  the  organists  of  St.  Mark's  has 
been  preserved.  Francesco  Landino,  the  blind  organist,  and 
Bernhard  the  German,  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  organ 
pedals,  are  the  only  distinguished  names  of  the  many  who 
officiated  at  the  organ  at  St.  Mark's  before  the  latter  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  In  1490  Urban  of  Venice  built  a  new 
organ  for  St.  Mark's  opposite  the  old  one,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  century  there  were  employed  two  organists  and  two  well- 
drilled  choirs,  able  to  sing  the  difficult  music  of  the  Flemish 
masters.  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  Adrian  Willaert,  one 
of  the  most  gifted  Flemish  composers,  was  invited  to  Venice 
to  take  the  direction  of  the  music  there,  and  he  thus  became 
the  real  founder  of  the  great  Venetian  school. 

91 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Influence  of 
the  Nether- 
lands on 
Venetian 
music 


Adrian 
Willaert 


Composi- 
tion for 
combined 
choirs 


At  this  period  Venice  stood  at  the  height  of  her  political 
prosperity.  Her  relations  with  the  Low  Countries  were  much 
more  intimate  than  with  her  Italian  neighbors  and  kins- 
men, toward  whom  she  held  a  proud  and  isolated  position. 
This  free  intercourse  between  prominent  commercial  powers 
extended  to  matters  of  intelligence  and  art  as  well  as  trade 
and  commerce,  and  we  can  trace  mutual  action  and  reaction. 
We  have  evidence  that  the  influence  of  Titian,  Veronese, 
and  Tintoretto  was  felt  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  works  of 
Rubens  and  Vandyke,  while  in  music  we  know  that  Josquin 
and  Willaert  were  the  forerunners  of  the  Venetian  composers, 
De  Rore  and  Andrea  and  Giovanni  Gabrieli. 

Adrian  Willaert  was  born  at  Bruges  in  1480.  His  father 
brought  him  up  for  the  profession  of  law  and  sent  him  to 
Paris  to  study,  but  his  love  for  music  was  so  strong  that  he 
abandoned  the  study  of  law  and  became  the  pupil  in  music  of 
Mouton  and  Josquin.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1516,  having 
previously  gained  considerable  reputation.  Subsequently  he 
spent  several  years  at  the  court  of  Louis  II  of  Hungary.  In 
1527  he  was  called  to  Venice  as  chapelmaster  of  St.  Mark's, 
a  post  which  he  held  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died 
in  1563. 

Under  Willaert's  direction  the  music  of  St.  Mark's  became 
very  celebrated,  and  the  office  of  chapelmaster  at  that  church 
reached  a  high  point  of  eminence ;  from  his  time  until  the 
eighteenth  century  the  place  was  occupied  only  by  masters  of 
the  first  rank.  Willaert  was  a  pioneer  in  the  broadest  sense, 
for  though  his  style  was  founded  on  that  of  Josquin  and  his 
disciples,  he  began  almost  where  they  left  off.  He  was  the 
first  master  to  compose  for  two  or  more  choirs  in  combina- 
tion, —  a  style  of  music  which  his  followers  developed  to  its 
utmost  limits  with  astonishing  results. 

I  mentioned  that  antiphonal  choir  singing  was  introduced 
into  the  Christian  Church  at  a  very  early  period,  and  was  a 
custom  borrowed  from  the  responsive  chanting  of  the  ancient 


VENETIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH   CENTURY      93 

Greek  chorus  and  Jewish  temple  worship.  But  this  did  not 
acquire  any  remarkable  characteristics  before  Willaert's  day. 
The  Netherland  musicians  employed  all  their  energies  in 
solving  the  problem  of  counterpoint  with  a  limited  number  of 
parts.  In  their  most  elaborate  experiments  the  counterpoint 
never  exceeded  eight  real  harmonic  parts,  including  even  their 
rounds  or  circle  canons,  with  the  multiplicity  of  recurring 
voices  which  characterized  them.  It  probably  never  occurred 
to  them  to  mass  chorus  against  chorus,  each  one  as  a  well- 
organized  body  of  counterpoint,  capable  of  working  when 
required  in  full  agreement  with  the  others. 

Willaert,  with  his  countrymen,  Arcadelt  and  Verdelot,  was   Develop- 
the  founder  or  promoter  of  the  madrigal,  as  a  highly  refined  madrigal 
style  of  music.    Hitherto  it  had  been  a  kind  of  wild  flower, 
—  a  simple  pastoral;  but  now  it  assumed  more  importance. 
The  poem  generally  consisted  of  twelve  or  fifteen  lines  of 
variable  length,  so  that  it  really  appeared  more  like  a  free 
recitation  than  a  versification.    "  The  style,"  says  Mattheson, 
"  is  adapted  to  the  emotions  of  love,  tenderness,  and  sym- 
pathy."   The  closing  lines  often  expressed   some   witty  or 
happy  thought,  like  an  epigram. 

The  music  was  governed  more  strictly  by  the  meaning  of 
the  words  than  it  was  in  the  mass,  and  the  counterpoint  was 
more  simple  and  expressive.  In  some  madrigals  the  voices 
were  wrought  out  with  exquisite  refinement  in  a  delicate  web 
of  counterpoint ;  others  were  composed  in  simple  harmony, 
note  against  note.  This  latter  style  possessed  a  diatonic  char- 
acter, out  of  which  the  chromatic  element  of  modern  music 
could  gradually  be  developed.  The  first  hints  of  this  new 
acquisition  we  owe  to  Willaert. 

The  so-called  sacred  madrigal  was  an  offshoot  of  this  new 
style  and  does  not  differ  essentially  from  contemporary  motets. 
At  a  later  period  the  comic  madrigal  came  into  vogue  through 
Vecchi  and  others,  and  finally  the  madrigal  was  introduced 
on  the  dramatic  stage  in  the  earliest  attempts  of  the  opera, 


94  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  gave  rise  to  the  modern  opera  chorus.  The  madrigal  was 
accompanied  on  all  sorts  of  instruments.  For  over  two  centu- 
ries it  was  the  favorite  style  of  music,  and  an  immense  num- 
ber of  madrigals  flooded  Europe. 

Willaert's  most  noted  pupils  were  De  Rore,  Zarlino,  Porta, 
della  Viola,  and  Vicentino. 

Cipriano  de  Cipriano  de  Rore  was  born  at  Mechlin  in  1516.  He  was 
Willaert's  successor  at  St.  Mark's  in  1563,  and  died  at  Parma 
two  years  later.  His  originality  was  manifested  in  his  madri- 
gals, which  became  so  popular  that  the  Italians  called  him 
"  II  Divino."  De  Rore  did  not  hesitate  to  use  chromatic 
intervals,  and  boldly  entered  upon  the  new  path  which  his 
teacher  had  merely  pointed  out.  Considerable  opposition 
was  made  to  this  innovation  at  first,  but  soon  other  bold 
masters,  like  Lasso  and  Luca  Marenzio,  adopted  chromatic 
intervals  in  their  writings.  The  diatonic  character  of  most 
of  the  counterpoint  had  grown  monotonous,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  chromatic  melody  gave  variety  and  coloring  to 
the  music  and  deepened  the  expression  of  the  words. 

The  first  experiments,  naturally,  were  rude  and  harsh,  for 
De  Rore  did  not  stop  halfway,  and  produced  discordant 
sounds  equaled  only  by  some  of  the  latest  modern  masters. 
It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  De  Rore  and  his  imitators 
should  at  once  thoroughly  comprehend  the  true  laws  which 
govern  chromatic  melody  and  harmony ;  such  laws  could  be 
determined  only  after  long  experience.  These  masters  deserve 
the  honor,  at  all  events,  of  having  prepared  the  way  for  the 
modern  system  of  major  and  minor  keys  and  the  chromatic 
scale.  They  did  more  toward  the  attainment  of  a  newer  and 
higher  type  of  music  than  all  the  speculation  of  learned  theo- 
rists and  scholars  had  been  able  to  accomplish  from  antiquity 
to  the  modern  age. 

Gioseffo  De  Rore's  successor  at  St.  Mark's  was  Gioseffo  Zarlino, 

the  greatest  musical  theorist  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is 
difficult  to  form  any  idea  of  Zarlino's  talent  as  a  composer 


VENETIAN  MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY      95 

from  the  few  compositions  that  are  at  hand ;  his  fame  justly 
rests  on  his  profound  theoretical  writings.  His  great  work  on 
the  principles  of  music,  entitled  "  Instituzioni  armoniche," 
holds  a  very  high  place  in  musical  literature.  Before  his  day 
musicians  avoided  the  thirds  in  the  last  chords  of  the  final 
cadence  of  a  composition ;  all  pieces  ended  either  with  the 
simple  octave,  or  the  octave  with  the  fifth.  Orlando  Lasso, 
as  I  have  stated,  was  the  first  to  adopt  this  innovation  in 
practical  music,  but  he  did  not  extend  it  to  the  minor  third, 
which  was  not  used  at  the  close  of  a  piece  until  nearly  the 
eighteenth  century.  Zarlino  justified  the  use  of  the  major 
and  minor  thirds  and  sixths  as  concords  by  his  so-called 
pure  diatonic  system  of  tempered  intervals,  which  was  an 
improvement  on  the  pure-fifth  system  of  Pythagoras.  This 
new  system  recognized  large  and  small  whole  tones  in  the 
series  of  intervals  comprising  the  diatonic  scale. 

The  foundation  of  organ  playing  was  laid  at  Venice.    The  Organ  play- 
most  celebrated  organ  players  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  ing 
trained  in  the  Venetian  school.    A  complete  list  of  the  organ- 
ists of  St.  Mark's  is  contained  in  von  Winterfeld's  masterly 
work,  "  Giovanni  Gabrieli  and  his  Age."    We  read  the  names 
of   Parrabosco,   Claudio    Merulo,   and   Andrea  and   Giovanni 
Gabrieli.    The  two  greatest  masters  of  the  Venetian  school 
were  Andrea  Gabrieli  and  his  nephew  Giovanni. 

Andrea  was  born  at  Venice  in  1510.  He  was  appointed  Andrea 
organist  of  the  second  organ  at  St.  Mark's,  and  held  this  Gabrieh 
position  until  his  death  in  1586.  He  was  a  productive  com- 
poser, and  enriched  church  music  by  the  accompaniment  of 
various  instruments.  Proske  pays  a  high  tribute  to  his  genius 
in  the  following  words  :  "  He  understood  better  than  any  of 
his  predecessors  how  to  combine  choruses  of  many  harmonic 
parts  in  superb  masses  of  tone.  But  the  sensuous  splendor  of 
these  novel  effects,  which  seemed  to  be  an  inheritance  of  the 
proud  island  city,  did  not  rob  his  music  of  that  earnestness  and 
religious  feeling  which  was  peculiar  to  Venetian  institutions 


96  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  society  at  that  period."  Andrea  Gabrieli  was  a  remark- 
able organist.  He  was  the  teacher  of  Merulo,  who  was  very 
famous  as  an  organ  composer  and  player. 

Giovanni  Giovanni  Gabrieli  was   born  in    1557.    In    1585    he   was 

appointed  first  organist  at  St.  Mark's  in  place  of  Merulo.  His 
genius  was  manifested  in  all  branches  of  musical  composition. 
His  church  music  is  as  solemn  and  elevated  as  Palestrina's. 
Although  he  employed  the  church  modes,  he  seemed  to  mold 
their  rigid  forms  into  a  more  modern  expression.  The  genu- 
ine church  style  pervades  Giovanni's  works,  but  they  are 
free  from  the  cold  impersonality  which  is  characteristic  of 
most  a  cappella  music :  he  appeals  to  the  individual  heart. 
"He  prays  and  we  pray  with  him,"  says  Ambros.  "If  we 
compare  the  same  text  with  Palestrina,  whose  style  is  not 
less  glorious,  nor  less  elevating  to  the  soul,  we  feel  an  im- 
mense difference ;  for  Palestrina  is  the  last,  purest  sound  of 
the  older  direction  in  music,  while  Gabrieli  announces  in  a 
wonderful  manner  the  coming  musical  emancipation  of  the 
individual."  In  a  cappella  music  he  has  never  been  equaled 
in  the  production  of  rich  effects  of  musical  coloring  —  in 
separating  and  massing  together  choral  harmonies. 

His  compositions  for  two,  three,  and  four  choruses  are 
wonderful  exhibitions  of  skill  and  judgment.  Each  choir  is  a 
complete  organization  of  four-part  harmony.  Each  is  stationed 
separately  at  some  point  of  the  cathedral  to  take  independent 
action,  to  respond  to  the  other  choirs  or  to  blend  with  them, 
according  to  the  master's  fancy.  The  sound  of  these  aerial 
harmonies  as  they  rose  and  fell  in  echo,  now  soaring  heaven- 
ward in  many-voiced  concord  and  in  glorious  praise,  now 
floating  soft  and  low  in  prayer  or  in  sad  miserere,  must 
have  moved  profoundly  the  hearts  of  the  worshipers  in  that 
grand  old  cathedral  of  St.  Mark's.  We  cannot  but  feel  a 
pang  of  regret  that  such  divine  art  is  not  universally  known 
and  appreciated,  that  this  musical  Titan  has  been  neglected 
and  almost  forgotten.  It  may  not  always  be  thus  ;  we  may 


VENETIAN   MASTERS  OF  SIXTEENTH   CENTURY      97 

yet  be  educated  to  a  more  universal  and  enlightened  taste,  so 
that  our  ears  may  some  day  be  open  to  noble  and  beautiful 
music  of  every  country  and  age. 

Gabrieli  made  free  use  of  musical  instruments,  which  did  Free  use  of 
not  slavishly  accompany  the  voice  parts  but  had  an  obligato  l 
part  of  their  own.  Sometimes  they  preluded  the  voices,  and 
in  the  course  of  the  piece  instrumental  interludes  were  intro- 
duced. Such  compositions  were  called  sacred  symphonies. 
He  also  employed  solo  voices  in  combination  with  chorus  and 
instruments.  The  instruments  used  by  him  were  the  cornetti 
(a  wind  instrument  now  obsolete),  trombones,  and  stringed 
instruments.  Von  Winterfeld  gives  a  number  of  fine  exam- 
ples of  the  master's  art.  One  of  the  most  strikingly  beautiful 
and  richly  effective  pieces  in  this  collection  is  the  "Benedic- 
tus  et  Osanna "  for  three  choirs.  The  first  choir  is  com- 
posed of  sopranos,  alto,  and  tenor ;  the  second  choir,  of  mixed 
voices  ;  the  lowest  choir,  of  male  voices  in  a  low  register.  The 
rich  color  of  such  music  cannot  be  described.  Gabrieli  holds 
a  high  place  in  musical  history  as  an  instrumental  composer 
and  organ  player.  His  pieces  for  the  orchestra  of  stringed 
instruments,  cornetti,  and  trombones  must  have  had  a  superb 
effect.  His  sonatas,  canzoni,  toccatas,  and  other  organ  pieces 
sound  musical  to-day,  notwithstanding  the  immense  progress 
that  has  been  made  since  his  time. 

The  use  made  of  chromatic  effects  by  this  master  is  well  Chromatic 
described  by  Ambros.    He  says  : 

In  his  madrigals  Gabrieli  showed  that  he  knew  how  to  treat  chro- 
matic progressions  much  better  than  De  Rore,  who  occasionally  over- 
shot his  mark.  In  the  class  of  music  by  Gabrieli  which  may  be  termed 
chromatic,  the  master  has  proved  himself  to  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  laws  of  chromatic  harmony,  producing  effects  of  which  his 
predecessors  and  even  his  contemporaries  had  hardly  a  conception. 
We  find  modulations,  sequences  of  chords,  digressions,  half  cadences 
that  refer  to  the  tonic  of  a  foreign  key,  retrogression,  etc.,  —  musi- 
cal effects,  which,  though  closely  related  to  our  modern  system  of 
keys,  were  not  very  far  removed  from  the  mediaeval  church  modes.  He 


98  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

accomplished  this  through  the  agency  of  the  raising  and  lowering  of 
the  key  which  had  become  general;  that  is,  the  so-called  musica  ficta, 
or  transposed  keys. 

Giovanni  Gabrieli  stood  at  an  important  turning  point  in 
musical  history.  He  witnessed  some  of  the  first  attempts  in 
monodic  dramatic  music,  —  the  beginning  of  the  opera  and 
oratorio  in  the  first  year  of  the  seventeenth  century.  If  he  had 
lived  longer,  he  might  possibly  have  composed  specimens  of 
these  new  styles,  as  did  his  gifted  pupil  Heinrich  Schiitz. 
Gabrieli  Gabrieli  may  be  compared  to  Sebastian  Bach,  who  also 

stood  at  a  turning  point  in  music,  and  marked  equally  well  the 
culmination  of  an  older  epoch  and  the  beginning  of  a  new  one. 
Both  these  musicians  did  a  great  work  for  instrumental  music  ; 
both  introduced  new  and  bold-effects  in  harmony  and  remark- 
able combinations  of  voices  and  instruments,  of  which  their 
predecessors  had  not  availed  themselves ;  and  both  were 
more  individual,  or  subjective,  in  their  music  than  their 
greatest  contemporaries.  While  Gabrieli  can  be  compared 
with  Bach,  Palestrina  may  be  matched  with  Handel ;  and 
from  a  worldly  point  of  view  this  analogy  also  holds  good, 
for  the  genius  of  Palestrina  and  Handel  has  been  universally 
recognized  and  admired,  while  the  other  two  musicians  are 
still  unappreciated  by  the  millions. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MUSIC  IN  GERMANY 

The  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  exerted  a  power-  Effect  of  the 
ful  influence  on  the  development  of  music  in  two  ways  :  first,   tion°o™a 
by  means  of  the  Protestant  Church ;  and  secondly,  through  music 
the  reaction  which   it  caused   within    the    Roman    Catholic 
Church. 

During  the  early  stages  of  the  Reformation  great  violence 
and  harm  were  done  to  the  fine  arts.  Churches  were  sacked 
and  burned ;  the  paintings  and  statues  destroyed.  But  this 
fierce  spirit  of  iconoclasm  did  not  extend  to  music,  except 
among  the  Presbyterians  and  Puritans,  who  banished  trained 
choirs  and  musical  instruments  from  their  places  of  worship. 
The  great  body  of  the  Protestant  world,  however,  retained 
music  as  the  handmaid  of  religion.  To  men  engaged  in  a 
terrible  struggle  with  Roman  tyranny  and  persecution,  music 
was  a  precious  boon.  It  expressed  more  deeply  than  any 
other  form  of  art  the  aspirations  and  hopes  of  those  who  were 
destined  perhaps  to  suffer  at  the  hands  of  a  cruel  enemy. 

As  Germany  was  the  central  point  of  the  Reformation,  so 
it  was  likewise  the  starting  point  of  this  new  and  peculiar 
phase  of  musical  progress.  Although  that  country  at  an  earlier 
period  had  able  musicians  like  Isaac,  Finck,  and  Mahu,  who 
were  contemporaries  of  the  earlier  Netherland  school,  yet  the 
real  national  characteristics  of  German  music  sprang  into  life 
through  the  Reformation. 

Martin   Luther  himself,  the  head  and  front  of  the  great   Martin 
movement,  took  the  deepest  interest  in  music,  which  he  exem- 
plified in  his  own  grand  "  Ein'  feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott " 
and  other  famous  melodies  and  hymns.    Some  of  the  noblest 

99 


IOO 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Sources  of 
music  of 
the  Lu- 
theran 
Church 


words  in  praise  of  music  were  uttered  by  him.  He  said : 
"  Next  to  theology  there  is  no  art  to  be  compared  with  music. 
Music  makes  people  more  gentle  and  tender-hearted,  more 
virtuous  and  reasonable.  Singing  is  an  excellent  art  and  exer- 
cise. There  dwell  the  germs  of  many  good  virtues  in  hearts 
devoted  to  music.  Those  who  are  not  moved  by  music  I  hold 
to  be  like  sticks  and  stones." 

If  we  compare  the  early  Protestant  church  music  of  Ger- 
many with  the  Roman  and  Venetian  music  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  we  are  struck  with  one  marked  difference.  The 
German  church  music  was  of  a  more  popular  character ;  it 
sprang  directly  from  the  people.  It  was  more  simple,  lyrical, 
and  expressive,  but  less  artistic  and  elaborate  than  Italian 
church  music,  which  was  the  outgrowth  of  skill  and  genius. 
The  powerful  encouragement  which  the  church  had  given  for 
ages  to  the  cultivation  of  sacred  music  produced  great  results 
while  German  music  was  yet  in  its  childhood.  Rome  was  still 
the  center  of  the  world  in  art  and  knowledge  as  well  as  in 
wealth  and  refinement.  Germany  was  but  a  poor  country  in 
comparison ;  its  people  were  rough  and  uncultivated.  Never- 
theless the  foundation  of  the  future  greatness  of  German 
music  was  laid  during  the  Reformation,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  following  two  centuries  Protestant  Germany  produced 
two  of  the  greatest  masters  of  sacred  music  who  ever  lived, 
—  Bach  and  Handel. 

I  refer  all  those  who  desire  to  gain  a  complete  knowledge 
of  this  branch  of  musical  history  to  the  great  work  of  Carl 
von  Winterfeld,  entitled  "Der  evangelische  Kirchengesang." 
There  are  three  sources  whence  the  Lutheran  Church  has 
derived  its  music :  first,  from  the  early  Latin  hymns  and 
melodies  of  the  Romish  Church ;  second,  from  the  popular 
sacred  music  in  Germany  prior  to  the  Reformation  ;  third, 
from  the  secular  music  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Many  of  the  most 
beautiful  Latin  hymns  were  eagerly  translated  or  imitated  in 
German,  furnishing  rich  material  for  the  new  church.  The 


MUSIC   IN   GERMANY  IOI 

melodies  in  many  cases  were  also  appropriated,  and  a  few 
specimens  have  lived  to  the  present  day  and  are  still  in  general 
use  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  three  oldest  Latin  songs  are 
the  following  beautiful  chorals  :  "  Veni  redemptor  gentium  " 
(Come,  Saviour  of  the  Heathen),  from  the  fourth  century,  and 
attributed  to  St.  Ambrose  ;  "  A  solis  ortus  cardine,"  from  the 
fifth  century;  "Veni  creator  spiritus  "  (Come  Creator,  Holy 
Ghost),  from  the  eighth  century,  and  erroneously  attributed 
to  Charlemagne. 

In  regard  to  the  German  sacred  songs  prior  to  the  Refor-  German 
mation,  it  is  a  well-authenticated  fact  that  long  before  that  ^°[ 
age  it  was  the  custom  to  sing  a  part  of  the  religious  service  church 
in  German  instead  of  Latin.  Even  as  far  back  as  the  ninth 
century  there  existed  German  popular  sacred  songs,  and  in 
succeeding  centuries,  especially  in  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth, the  age  of  the  Mariencultus ,  they  were  very  common, 
and  finally  were  used  in  the  church.  On  the  other  hand,  Latin 
words  were  not  wholly  dispensed  with  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
before  the  seventeenth  century.  Some  of  the  best  specimens 
of  this  old,  popular  sacred  music  are  the  chorals,  "  Christ  ist 
erstanden"  (from  the  twelfth  century),  "Also  heilig  ist  der 
Tag"  (from  the  fifteenth  century),  "Nun  bitten  wir  den 
heiligen  Geist,"  "  Gelobet  seist  du,  Jesu  Christ,"  etc.,  and 
the  old  German  Christmas  song,  "  Ein  Kindelein  so  lobe- 
lich,"  known  as  "  Der  Tag,  der  ist  so  freudenreich." 

The  German  popular  secular  songs  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  we  met  with  in  the  minnelieder  and  meisterlieder  of 
the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries,  together 
with  the  rich  collection  of  melodies  contained  in  the  "  Loch- 
heimer  Song  Book  "  enable  us  fully  to  appreciate  the  noble 
character  of  much  of  this  old  music.  It  is  easy  to  account 
for  the  very  generous  supply  of  fine  chorals  that  owe  their 
origin  to  this  source.  Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and  touching 
melodies,  the  very  jewels  among  the  many  chorals  now  in  use, 
were  set  originally  to  secular  words. 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA1 
SANTA  BARBARA 


IO2 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Old  Ger- 
man songs 
peculiarly 
adapted  to 
religious 
worship 


Modern 
secular 
music  not 
adapted  to 
worship 


We  might  suppose,  judging  by  the  music  of  the  present 
day,  that  the  custom  of  introducing  secular  melodies  into  the 
church  would  have  led  to  a  profanation  of  religion.  In  the 
Netherlands  this  was  the  case,  because  profane  and  some- 
times very  offensive  words  were  introduced,  as  well  as  other 
abuses  which  I  have  already  enumerated.  But  the  old  songs 
of  Germany  were  generally  earnest  and  elevated  in  their 
tone;  many  of  them,  indeed,  were  profoundly  sad  and  reli- 
gious. When  the  trying  times  of  the  Reformation  came  the 
people  could  not  help  singing ;  nothing  could  restrain  them 
from  expressing  their  religious  ardor  in  song.  And  what  could 
be  more  natural  than  to  sing  the  familiar  melodies  which 
they  had  known  from  childhood,  and  which  were  endeared  to 
them  by  earliest  associations  ?  In  this  way  the  words  were 
changed ;  instead  of  some  secular  object  the  higher  worship 
of  God  became  the  burden  of  the  song.  From  that  day  for- 
ward the  people  took  a  more  active  part  in  the  services  of 
public  worship.  Simple  melodies  were  required  for  congrega- 
tional singing,  and  none  could  serve  them  so  well  as  their 
own  favorite  songs,  for  the  elaborate  counterpoint  of  Catholic 
church  music  was  far  too  difficult  for  them.  These  are  suffi- 
cient reasons  to  account  for  the  great  number  of  German 
chorals  which  owe  their  rise  to  the  people  and  not  to  distin- 
guished masters  of  the  art.  At  first  considerable  opposition 
was  shown  by  many  to  the  adaptation  of  sacred  words  to  secular 
melodies  on  the  ground  that  that  which  is  once  dedicated  to 
the  world  and  the  devil  is  not  fit  for  the  church.  But  von 
Dommer  remarks  that  Satan,  according  to  Luther's  own 
words,  is  no  lover  of  music,  and  his  Majesty  seems  to  have 
been  very  indifferent  to  the  fate  of  these  secular  songs,  never 
having  troubled  himself  to  look  after  his  stolen  property,  but 
leaving  it  in  the  hands  of  the  Protestants. 

The  custom  of  appropriating  secular  melodies  continued 
for  a  long  time,  almost  till  the  present  century;  but  the  more 
modern  examples  offend  our  taste,  because  the  secular  style 


MUSIC   IN   GERMANY  103 

in  music  has  diverged  so  far  from  the  church  style.  The 
exquisite  beauty  of  some  of  the  melodies  of  mediaeval  origin 
has  deservedly  rendered  them  great  favorites,  and  celebrated 
masters  like  Schulz,  Graun,  Bach,  and,  in  the  present  century, 
Mendelssohn,  Schneider,  and  others,  have  introduced  them 
into  their  finest  cantatas,  passion  music,  and  oratorios. 

It  will  suffice  to  give  the  names  of  a  few  such  melodies  well  Famous 
known  to  the  admirers  of  German  chorals.  The  lovely  choral,  ch6J^n 
"Nun  ruhenalle  Walder"  (the  Forests  are  now  Reposing),  was 
a  secular  melody  composed  by  Heinrich  Isaac  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century.  Another  deeply  expressive 
melody,  "O  Haupt  voll  Blut  und  Wunden  "  (O  Sacred  Head 
now  Wounded),  was  originally  a  love  song  by  Hans  Leo  von 
Hasler,  and  has  been  used  by  Sebastian  Bach  in  his  passion 
music.  The  melody  to  "  Ich  dank'  dir,  lieber  Herre  "  (I  thank 
thee,  dearest  Lord)  was  adapted  from  the  secular  song, 
"  Entlaubet  ist  der  Walde,"  which  I  mentioned  as  the  oldest 
specimen  extant  of  good  three-part  harmony.  Early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  various  collections  of  secular  songs  were 
printed  by  Oeglin,  Schoffer,  Forster,  and  others,  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  century  they  were  arranged  to  sacred  words 
for  congregational  use  by  Knaust,  Vespasius,  and  others. 

But  since  these  publications  first  appeared  the  choral  melo-  Change  in 
dies  have  greatly  changed  their  form.    At  the  present  day  chora°mel- 
the  notes  are  of  nearly  equal  length,  but  before  the  middle  odies 
of  the  seventeenth  century  their  rhythm  was  more  varied  than 
since  that  time :  notes  of  various  lengths  were  freely  used  ; 
triple  measure,  syncopations,  and  sudden  changes  of  tempo 
were  common.  These  effects  sprang  naturally  from  the  pecu- 
liar meter  of  the  secular  poetry  and  music  of  that  age  and 
not  from  the  elaborate  contrapuntal  art. 

Since  the  time  when  the  choral  melodies  assumed  their  mod- 
ern simple  form,  efforts  have  been  made  to  return  to  a  more 
florid  and  varied  rhythm,  but  without  success,  for  the  simple 
and  equal  notes  are  more  solemn  and  much  more  easily  sung 


IO4 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Artistic 
choir  sing- 
ing 


Twofold 
character 
of  Lutheran 
church 
music 


in  unison  by  a  large  congregation.  This  is  the  only  practical 
solution  of  the  question,  for  no  congregational  singing  can  be 
grand  and  inspiring  unless  it  be  of  a  simple  character. 

Contemporaneous  with  this  simple  style  of  church  music 
for  congregational  singing  was  enriched  artistic  choir  sing- 
ing, the  contrapuntal  treatment  of  choral  melodies  in  many 
parts  being  very  common  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  The  usual  form  of  such  compositions  was  brief 
and  closely  wrought.  The  choral  was  frequently  placed  in 
the  tenor,  as  cantus  firmus,  and  the  other  voices  were  set 
to  it  in  free,  imitative  counterpoint.  The  mediaeval  church 
modes  lay,  of  course,  at  the  foundation  of  their  harmonic  and 
melodic  structure.  Luther  describes  this  kind  of  music  with 
unqualified  admiration. 

We  recognize  with  astonishment  the  great  and  perfect  wisdom  of  God 
as  exhibited  in  his  wonderful  works  of  music  ;  but  we  perceive  it  only 
in  part,  for  it  is  most  surprising  that  while  one  voice  is  singing  a  simple 
air  or  tenor,  other  voices  leap  and  play  about  it  as  with  shouts  of  joy, 
adorning  this  same  air  or  tenor  with  manifold  grace  and  beauty,  and 
led  like  a  heavenly  choir,  they  fondly  encircle  and  greet  one  another. 
Even  those  who  have  but  a  slight  understanding  of  this  art  are  deeply 
touched  by  it,  and  think  that  there  is  nothing  more  remarkable  in  the 
world  than  such  a  song  adorned  with  many  voices.  And  he  who  has  no 
love  nor  desire  for  it,  and  is  not  moved  by  such  a  delightful  master- 
piece, must  be  a  coarse  clod  for  whom  such  music  is  too  good ;  he  is 
only  fit  to  listen  to  the  howlings  of  animals. 

The  twofold  character  of  Lutheran  church  music  is  shown 
in  the  choral  books  of  the  sixteenth  century  :  one  kind  con- 
tains the  simple  melodies  and  text,  and  was  intended  for  the 
use  of  the  congregation ;  another  was  printed  in  separate 
voice  parts  for  the  choir,  and  contains  the  full  contrapuntal 
treatment  of  the  chorals.  These  harmonies  were  not  com- 
posed simultaneously  with  the  melodies  to  which  they  were 
set,  but  were  the  later  work  of  educated  musicians ;  the 
melodies  were  generally  the  productions  of  singers  or  unknown 
authors.  Many  of  these  choral  melodies  have  been  attributed 


MUSIC   IN   GERMANY  105 

erroneously  to  the  harmonists,  while  in  fact  they  were  com- 
posed long  before  their  day. 

This  contrapuntal  choral  style  soon  attained  a  high  degree 
of  cultivation ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  chorals  were  gradu- 
ally sifted  out,  leaving  a  rich  residue  of  melody  in  the  many 
examples  now  in  use,  which  sound  ever  new  and  beautiful. 
They  are  the  embodiments  of  religious  enthusiasm  and  devo- 
tion, and  will  always  move  the  hearts  of  men.  We  have 
reaped  the  fruits  of  the  Reformation,  not  only  in  our  modern 
religious  and  social  freedom,  but  also  in  some  of  the  highest 
forms  of  musical  art.  The  double  significance  of  this  new 
movement  in  music  which  the  Reformation  inaugurated  is 
that  the  popular  element  —  the  source  and  life  of  musical 
inspiration  at  that  time  —  was  combined  with  the  development 
of  the  more  artistic  forms  of  expression,  as  displayed  in  the 
cantatas  and  passion  music  of  noted  masters,  who  freely  intro- 
duced favorite  choral  melodies  into  their  most  elaborate  works 
as  illustrative  of  some  significant  passage  of  the  text,  while 
the  remainder  of  the  composition  followed  the  original  epic, 
lyric,  or  dramatic  style,  with  corresponding  recitatives,  solos, 
and  choruses,  which  the  composer  arranged  according  to  his 
fancy  or  conception.  This  style  of  music  reached  its  culmina- 
tion in  the  eighteenth  century  in  the  cantatas  and  passion 
music  of  Sebastian  Bach,  which  are  the  highest  expression 
of  Protestant  church  music. 

The  prominent  names  which  we  first  meet  in  connection  Johann 
with  Protestant  church  music  in  Germany,  besides  Luther,  an^  Lud 
are  those  of  the  musicians,  Johann  Walther  and  Ludwig  Senfl.   Senfl 
Their  labors  did  not  extend  beyond  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  this  may  be  called  the  first  period  of  Protestant 
church  music.    Johann  Walther  was  master  of  philosophy  and 
court  musician  at  Torgau,  and  was  afterwards  called  by  Luther 
to  Wittenberg  with  the  singer  Conrad  Rupf  to  arrange  the 
German  mass.    Walther's  was  the  first  choral  book  published, 
and  appeared  at  Wittenberg  in  1524,  under  the  supervision  of 


io6 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Second 
period  of 
German 
church 
music 


Luther,  who  wrote  the  preface  to  the  work.  Several  editions 
of  this  choral  book  were  printed  in  the  course  of  the  following 
years.  In  the  last  edition  of  the  work  in  1551  the  melody, 
which  hitherto  had  been  placed  chiefly  in  the  tenor,  appeared 
frequently  in  the  upper  voice  as  in  modern  music. 

Walther  was  not  distinguished  as  a  master  of  music,  and 
beyond  his  choral  book  did  not  leave  any  impression  on 
his  age.  The  ablest  musical  personage  of  that  period  was 
Ludwig  Senfl,  who,  like  Walther,  is  reputed  to  have  been  asso- 
ciated with  Luther  in  advancing  church  music.  He  was  born 
and  educated  in  Switzerland,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Heinrich  Isaac. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  chapel  of  Emperor  Maximilian, 
and  in  1530  was  chosen  as  director  of  church  music  at  the 
Bavarian  court  at  Munich,  —  the  position  which  was  occu- 
pied subsequently  by  Orlando  Lasso. 

Senfl  was  a  great  favorite  of  Luther,  who  praised  his  com- 
positions above  all  others.  The  panegyric  which  I  quoted  may 
have  been  suggested  by  Senfl's  harmonies.  Senfl  not  only 
composed  motets  and  other  church  music,  but  also  set  music 
to  ancient  odes,  particularly  those  of  Horace,  according  to 
the  custom  of  his  day.  A  collection  of  these  odes  was  pub- 
lished in  1534  at  Nuremberg.  He  did  not  compose  original 
chorals,  but  displayed  a  higher  degree  of  skill  and  taste  than 
others  of  his  time  in  his  contrapuntal  treatment  of  them,  and 
was  the  forerunner  of  masters  like  Eccard  and  Michael  Prae- 
torius.  A  pure  religious  spirit  animates  his  works,  and  the 
chaste  style  of  his  themes  and  counterpoint,  though  not  so 
flowing  as  with  later  masters,  renders  his  music  interesting. 

Among  the  names  of  other  German  masters  of  the  first 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  are  Heinrich  Finck,  Rhau, 
Resinarius,  Martin  Agricola,  Ducis,  Mahu,  Dietrich,  and 
Stoltzer,  most  of  whom  were  educated  in  the  Flemish  school. 

The  second  period  in  the  development  of  German  Protes- 
tant church  music  began  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  it  became  the  custom  to  set  the  melody  in  the 


MUSIC   IN   GERMANY  107 

highest  part  of  the  harmony,  as  in  modern  music.  Placed 
in  the  tenor,  the  melody  could  never  assert  its  rights,  for, 
while  the  other  voices  played  about  it  in  canon  or  imitative 
counterpoint,  it  was  so  oppressed  that  it  was  often  lost  to 
the  ear. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  a  similar  movement  as  taking 
place  in  Flanders  and  Italy.  The  stile  familiare  of  Josquin 
and  his  followers,  the  simple  frottole  and  villanelle  of  Italy, 
were  the  first  attempts  in  homophonous  music,  and  were  soon 
imitated  in  Germany  in  the  later  choral  books.  The  French 
Calvinists,  under  the  direction  of  Clement  Marot,  published 
as  early  as  1542  a  French  translation  of  thirty  of  the  Psalms, 
which  were  sung  to  the  popular  secular  melodies  then  cur- 
rent in  France.  Calvin  himself  increased  this  number  dur- 
ing the  following  year. 

In  1552  Theodore  Beza,  a  banished  French  nobleman  living 
at  Geneva,  completed  a  French  translation  of  all  the  Psalms, 
which  was  published  in  1565  with  corresponding  melodies 
and  full  harmony  by  Claude  Goudimel,  and  was  adopted  for 
use  by  the  authority  of  the  Calvinist  Church.  These  melodies 
were  of  popular  origin.  Goudimel's  harmony  was  very  simple, 
usually  note  against  note,  with  the  melody  in  the  tenor,  which, 
as  the  other  voices  rarely  cross  it,  can  generally  be  distin- 
guished from  the  other  parts. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  century  the  prominent  masters   Prominent 
were  Matthieu  Le  Maistre,  a  Netherlander,  who  for  a  long  j^last  half 
time   was  royal  chapelmaster  at  Dresden ;   Antonius  Scan-  of  the  six- 
dellus ;  Jacob  Handl,  or  Callus  as  he  was  called ;  Seth  Cal- 
visius  ;  Joachim  a  Burgk  ;  Nicolaus  Hermann,  who  composed 
the  famous  chorals  "  Erschienen  ist  der  herrliche  Tag"  and 
"  Lobt  Gott,  ihr  Christen,  allzugleich,"  the  latter  appearing 
in  mutilated  form  in  books  of  American  psalmody.    Among 
other  composers  of  chorals  and  church  music  of  a  more  elab- 
orate description  were  Johann  Steuerlein,  Melchior  Vulpius, 
Hieronymus    and    Jacob    Praetorius,    David    Scheidemann, 


io8 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Cantors 


Hans  Leo 
von  Hasler 


Johann 
Eccard 


Bartholomaus  Gese,  and  Lucas  Lossius.  Several  of  these 
representatives  of  early  German  music  were  distinguished  in 
other  fields  than  music.  A  number  were  cantors, — an 
office  of  high  distinction  in  those  days.  The  cantors  were 
masters  of  singing  appointed  to  take  full  charge  of  the  music 
of  the  church,  and  even  before  the  Reformation  they  held  an 
honorable  position.  During  the  first  two  centuries  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  the  cantors  were  in  many  cases  the  most 
noted  musical  characters  of  their  time.  The  oldest  and  most 
prominent  of  these  cantorships  now  in  existence  is  that  of  the 
St.  Thomas  School  at  Leipzig,  which  is  noted  above  all  others 
for  a  brilliant  array  of  names  of  musicians  like  Johann  Kuhnau, 
Sebastian  Bach,  Doles,  J.  A.  Hiller,  Schicht,  Weinlig,  and 
Moritz  Hauptmann.  But  with  this,  and  a  few  other  excep- 
tions, the  office  of  cantor  has  lost  its  ancient  reputation. 

The  ablest  representatives  of  German  church  music  in  the 
sixteenth  century  were  Hasler,  Eccard,  and  Praetorius.  Hans 
Leo  von  Hasler  was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1564  and  died  in 
1612.  He  was  educated  in  music  by  Andrea  Gabrieli  at 
Venice.  He  was  one  of  the  first  organists  of  his  time  and 
a  clever  contrapuntist  and  composer.  Although  he  was  a 
disciple  of  the  Venetian  school,  his  compositions  have  a 
genuine  German  simplicity  and  strength.  The  wonderfully 
beautiful  and  pathetic  choral,  "  Herzlich  thut  mich  verlangen," 
was  composed  by  Hasler. 

The  most  justly  celebrated  German  composer  of  the  six- 
teenth century  was  Johann  Eccard,  who  was  born  at  Miihl- 
hausen  in  1553.  It  is  conjectured  that  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Joachim  a  Burgk  and  Orlando  Lasso.  On  the  completion  of 
his  training  under  those  masters,  it  is  affirmed  that  he  visited 
Venice  to  advance  his  musical  studies,  this  being  the  time 
of  Zarlino,  Merulo,  and  Andrea  Gabrieli.  He  returned  to 
Germany  in  1578,  and  subsequently  held  several  musical  posi- 
tions there.  In  1608  he  was  called  to  the  court  of  Frederick 
at  Berlin,  where  he  died  three  years  later,  in  1611. 


MUSIC   IN  GERMANY  109 

Eccard's  music  was  simple  compared  with  that  of  his  con-  Eccard's 
temporaries  of  the  Venetian  and  Roman  schools.  He  was 
content  to  use  his  gifts  in  a  more  narrow  range  ;  nevertheless 
his  festival  songs  deserve  a  place  among  the  best  church  music, 
for  they  are  the  perfect  embodiment  of  religious  devotion, 
and  show  a  complete  mastery  of  the  peculiar  form  which  he 
adopted.  His  festival  songs  are  midway  between  the  motet 
and  the  choral,  approaching  rather  nearer  the  latter  kind  of 
music.  The  melody  appears  always  in  the  soprano,  and  is 
not  sufficiently  individualized  to  be  separated  from  the  har- 
mony. The  harmony  is  clear  and  full ;  it  is  written  gener- 
ally in  five  parts,  which  move  freely  and  are  well  adapted  to 
the  voices  of  the  singers.  These  festival  songs  were  set  by 
royal  command  to  the  sacred  airs  most  common  in  Prussia  at 
that  time,  and  were  used  on  festival  days  of  the  church  dur- 
ing the  year.  A  selection  of  the  best  of  these  pieces  was 
edited  and  published  in  1858  by  Teschner  in  Berlin. 

Eccard  was  likewise  the  composer  of  sacred  odes  and  secu- 
lar songs,  which  are  noble  in  comparison  with  similar  music  of 
his  day,  but  his  attention  was  devoted  chiefly  to  church  music. 
Two  of  his  pupils  became  celebrated  musicians,  Johann  Stobaus 
and  Heinrich  Albert,  the  founder  of  the  German  Lied. 

Michael  Praetorius  stood  on  the  boundary  line  between  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  and  witnessed  the  great 
change  which  was  then  taking  place  in  music  without  contrib- 
uting much  toward  it.  He  was  a  great  collector  and  publisher 
of  church  and  secular  music.  His  most  important  work  was 
his  "  Syntagma  musicum,"  which  is  an  invaluable  source  of 
information  regarding  old  musical  instruments. 


CHAPTER  IX 
MUSIC  IN  ENGLAND 

Cultivation  Music  was  cultivated  in  England  from  the  time  of  Alfred 
point""  t^ie  Great.  English  minstrelsy  was  universal  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  John  of  Fornsete  was  one  of  the  first  English 
musicians  (1226).  It  is  held  that  the  art  of  counterpoint 
was  farther  advanced  in  England  in  the  thirteenth  century 
than  on  the  Continent.  One  of  the  most  ancient  specimens 
of  good  counterpoint,  as  I  previously  mentioned,  is  the  six- 
part  canon,  "  Sumer  is  icumen  in,"  the  author  of  which  is 
unknown.  If  the  date  (1250)  be  correct,  it  proves  that  coun- 
terpoint was  practised  in  England  in  a  more  advanced  form 
than  elsewhere.  Chappell  has  brought  to  light  four  more 
specimens  of  English  counterpoint  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
—  a  find  which  seems  conclusive.  John  Dunstable  was  one 
of  the  best  contrapuntists  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Toward 
the  end  of  this  century  we  find  the  following  names  of  com- 
posers of  contrapuntal  church  music  :  Hamboys,  Saintwix, 
and  Abyngdon.  Turges,  Cornyshe,  Fayrfax,  Newark,  Tuder, 
Sheryngham,  Banester,  Brown,  Davy,  Sir  John  Phelyppes, 
Dygon,  and  others  flourished  in  the  time  of  the  early  Nether- 
land  masters,  and  evidently  imitated  their  style. 

It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  that  any  com- 
posers arose  who  merit  special  attention.  Of  those  who 
flourished  before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  may  be 
mentioned  Redford,  Thorne,  Edwards,  Johnson,  Taverner, 
Parsons,  Sheppard,  Etheridge,  Testwood,  Smearton,  Abel, 
Marbeck,  and  even  Henry  VIII  himself,  who  cultivated  music 
with  enthusiasm  in  his  younger  days.  The  music  of  these  mas- 
ters compares  very  favorably  with  the  best  contemporaneous 


MUSIC   IN   ENGLAND  III 

works  of  the  Netherlands  and  Italy.  A  part  of  their  numer- 
ous works  was  destroyed  by  the  Puritans,  but  an  immense  col- 
lection still  remains.  One  of  the  finest  examples  of  this  early 
English  school  is  Redford's  anthem,  "  Rejoice  in  the  Lord." 
The  counterpoint  of  these  masters  reminds  us  strongly  of 
the  Flemish  style.  Their  secular  music  is  decidedly  their 
best.  A  fine  example  is  Edwards'  madrigal,  "  In  going  to 
my  naked  bedde." 

The  first  master  who  marked  the  epoch  of  the  highest  Christopher 
excellence  in  English  music  was  Christopher  Tye  of  West-  ye 
minster,  who  was  made  Doctor  of  Music  at  Cambridge  in  1 545 
and  was  organist  of  the  royal  chapel  in  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign.  Burney  says  of  him  that  he  was  as  great  a  musician 
as  Europe  then  could  boast  of,  and  prints  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  history  a  selection  from  one  of  his  masses.  This  piece 
certainly  proves  that  he  was  decidedly  superior  as  a  composer 
to  his  English  predecessors  ;  one  is  struck  with  the  purity  of 
the  harmony  and  the  effective  massing  together  of  the  voices, 
—  a  massing  which  strongly  resembles  the  style  of  the  best 
Italian  masters.  Dr.  Tye  was  a  man  of  great  learning.  His 
anthems  are  said  to  be  his  best  compositions.  His  chief  work 
was  to  set  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  music,  but  he  did  not  get 
any  further  than  the  fourteenth  chapter.  This  music  is  highly 
praised.  Among  his  contemporaries  were  Causton,  Oclande, 
Knight,  Heath,  White,  Shepherd,  and  Johnson  whom  I  have 
already  mentioned. 

Robert  White,  whose  death  occurred  early  in  Elizabeth's 
reign,  was  a  true  master  of  church  music  in  the  style  of 
Palestrina.  Burney  prints  in  his  third  volume  a  fine  anthem 
by  White,  which  fully  testifies  to  his  excellence  as  a  composer. 

During  the  age  of  Queen  Elizabeth  England  was  decidedly 
a  musical  country.  Music  was  cultivated  by  all  classes  of 
society  from  the  throne  downwards.  It  was  considered  to  be 
a  necessary  branch  of  education ;  singing  and  playing  were 
universal  accomplishments.  Queen  Elizabeth  herself  was  a 


112  THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

remarkably  skillful  player  on  the  lute,  and  gave  encourage- 
ment to  the  cultivation  of  music.  Her  reign  abounded  in 
talented  composers  like  Tallis,  Byrd,  Dowland,  Morley, 
Wilbye,  and  others,  who  deserve  to  be  compared  with  the 
foremost  Italian  masters  of  that  epoch.  Marbeck  accom- 
plished a  good  work  for  English  church  music  by  setting  the 
whole  cathedral  service  to  music.  This  was  first  published 
in  1 5 50  under  the  title,  "The  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  noted." 

Thomas  Thomas  Tallis  and  his  pupil  William  Byrd  are  held  to  be 

the  most  eminent  masters  of  their  time.  Tallis  was  born 
early  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII  and  died  in  1585.  It  is 
believed  that  he  was  organist  of  the  royal  chapel  under 
Henry  VIII,  Edward  VI,  Queen  Mary,  and  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Burney  pronounces  him  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  musicians 
not  only  of  England  but  of  Europe  during  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. This  praise  is  certainly  not  undeserved ;  though,  in 
comparison  with  Palestrina  and  Orlando  Lasso,  he  manifests 
less  skill  in  his  counterpoint  and  in  the  treatment  of  the  church 
modes  than  the  latter  composer,  and  falls  far  short  of  the 
elevated  grandeur  and  purity  of  the  Roman  master.  But  com- 
pared with  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries  among  his 
own  countrymen  Tallis  exhibits  a  greater  mastery  of  form ; 
his  noble  style,  rich  harmony,  and  bold  use  of  accidentals  give 
a  peculiar  strength  and  individuality  to  his  compositions.  His 
cadences  are  particularly  energetic  and  significant. 

Although  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  Italian  music  had  begun 
to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  English  musicians,  the 
imitation  of  foreign  models  of  musical  art  did  not  rob  English 
madrigals  and  anthems  of  the  sixteenth  century  of  a  certain 
native  simplicity  and  healthy  strength  which  prevent  them 
from  ever  becoming  antiquated. 

William  William  Byrd,  a  disciple  of  Tallis,  was  born  in  1538  and 

died  in  1623.  He  was  the  son  of  the  musician  Thomas  Byrd, 
one  of  the  gentlemen  of  Edward  VI 's  chapel.  His  musical 
career  began  as  oldest  choir  boy  at  St.  Paul's.  In  1563  he 


MUSIC   IN   ENGLAND  113 

was  appointed  organist  of  Lincoln  Cathedral.  Six  years  later 
he  was  chosen  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  place 
of  Robert  Parsons,  and  at  the  same  time  Organist  to  the 
Queen  in  company  with  his  teacher,  Tallis.  Ambros  says  of 
Byrd,  "  He  was  the  master  who  completed  what  his  predeces- 
sors had  aspired  to,  and  was  an  artist  in  as  full  a  sense  as 
Palestrina."  But  the  German  critic  does  not  go  quite  so  far 
as  Burney,  who  maintains  that  Byrd's  "  Graduals "  are 
"equally  grave  and  solemn  with  those  of  Palestrina  to  the 
same  words,  and  seem  in  no  respect  inferior  to  the  choral 
works  of  that  great  master." 

There  is  a  tonic  clearness  in  the  harmony  of  Tallis  and  Modern 
Byrd  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  mystical,  mediasval  style  h 
of  music  of  contemporary  foreign  masters.  It  has  a  positive 
modern  quality,  a  peculiar  simplicity  and  strength.  Byrd  was 
a  very  industrious  and  productive  composer.  A  large  number 
of  his  compositions  were  published  during  his  lifetime,  consist- 
ing of  psalms,  sonnets,  graduals,  sacred  songs,  and  madrigals. 
He  composed  three  masses,  one  of  which,  the  five-voiced  mass, 
is  published  by  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society  of  London. 
Byrd  was  a  master  of  the  organ  and  virginal,  —  another  name 
for  the  spinet,  probably  given  to  it  in  honor  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  who  was  a  clever  player  on  that  instrument.  In 
a  splendid  manuscript  which  bears  the  name  of  "  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's Virginal  Book,"  and  is  preserved  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
Museum  at  Cambridge,  there  are  nearly  seventy  of  Byrd's 
instrumental  pieces.  These  pieces  consist  of  dances,  fugal 
movements,  fantasies,  and  variations  on  popular  melodies.  They 
remind  us  of  similar  compositions  by  Giovanni  Gabrieli,  whom 
Byrd  surpasses  in  this  branch  of  music.  The  homophonic  ele- 
ment and  modern  tonality  of  key  are  very  prominent  in  these 
pieces.  This  is  evident  in  the  variations  on  the  old  English 
tune,  "The  Carman's  Whistle,"  which  is  not  only  figured  in 
the  usual  contrapuntal  manner  but  is  also  harmonized  quite 
in  the  modern  fashion. 


114  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

John  Dow-  John  Dowland,  a  celebrated  lute  player  and  composer  of 
madrigals,  was  born  in  1562,  and  was  a  great  favorite  in  his 
day.  Shakespeare  praises  him  in  his  "  Passionate  Pilgrim  " 
with  the  lines,  "  Dowland  to  thee  is  dear,  whose  heavenly 
touch  upon  the  lute  doth  ravish  human  sense."  The  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Music  was  conferred  on  Dowland  at  Oxford  in 
1588  ;  on  his  return  from  a  journey  through  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  royal  chapel. 
One  of  his  most  remarkable  works  is  entitled  "  Lachrymae,  or 
Seven  Teares,  figured  in  seaven  passionate  Pa  vans."  It  was 
composed  in  five-part  harmony,  for  lutes,  violins,  and  violas, 
and  consists  of  pa  vans,  galliards,  and  allemandes,  —  dances  that 
have  long  since  become  obsolete.  Among  his  madrigals  is  the 
charming  "  Awake,  sweet  love." 

John  Bull  One  of  the  most  famous  men  of  his  time  was  John  Bull, 
born  in  1563.  He  was  a  remarkable  virtuoso  on  the  organ 
and  virginal,  and  was  also  a  learned  contrapuntist  and  fruitful 
composer.  The  title  of  Doctor  of  Music  was  conferred  on  him 
at  both  Cambridge  and  Oxford  in  1592,  and  soon  afterwards 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Gresham  College.  He 
resigned  this  position  after  holding  it  ten  years,  according  to 
Burney,  "  having  been  more  praised  at  home  than  rewarded." 
He  afterwards  went  abroad  (1611)  and  entered  the  service  of 
the  Grand  Duke  of  the  Netherlands. 

Dr.  Bull  was  the  composer  of  more  than  two  hundred  works, 
of  which  the  greater  part  were  pieces  for  the  organ  and  vir- 
ginal. His  unremitting  diligence  both  as  an  instrumental  com- 
poser and  performer  soon  won  for  him  a  continental  reputation. 
Some  of  his  pieces  are  difficult  even  for  advanced  players  of 
the  present  day.  Specimens  of  his  music  from  "  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's Virginal  Book  "  are  printed  in  Burney's  "  History  of 
Music."  The  first  specimen  consists  of  variations  on  the  hex- 
achord  —  a  series  of  ascending  and  descending  notes  of  the 
scale  —  played  by  the  right  hand,  while  the  left  hand  executes 
difficult  passages  of  double  thirds  and  sixths  as  well  as  a 


MUSIC   IN   ENGLAND  115 

perplexing  combination  of  unequal  rhythms,  three  against  two 
and  nine  against  six  quarter  notes  in  rapid  motion.  Another 
specimen  is  called  "  Dr.  Bull's  Jewel,"  which  is  far  from  being 
a  musical  gem. 

An  absurd  story  is  related  of  Dr.  Bull.  During  his  travels 
in  France  .he  met  with  a  director  of  music  who  laid  before 
him  an  original  composition  in  forty-part  harmony,  which  the 
author  considered  as  the  ne  pins  ultra  of  music,  but  he  was  so 
completely  astonished  when  Dr.  Bull  on  the  spot  added  forty 
parts  more  to  his  composition  that  he  exclaimed,  "  You  are 
either  Bull  or  the  Devil." 

Thomas  Morley  (born  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  Thomas 
century,  died  1604)  was  one  of  Byrd's  scholars  ;  he  was  made 
Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford  in  1588,  and  became  one  of 
the  gentlemen  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  chapel.  He  was  a  noted 
composer  and  writer  on  music,  and  was  the  author  of  an 
excellent  treatise  on  the  theory  of  music,  entitled  "A  Plaine 
and  Easie  Introduction  to  Practicall  Musicke."  His  madrigals, 
canzonets,  and  ballets  rank  among  the  best  of  the  time.  A 
charming  madrigal  is  "April  in  my  mistress's  face."  Other 
prominent  madrigalists  and  composers  of  this  time  were 
Thomas  Weelkes,  John  Ward,  John  Bennet,  John  Mundy, 
Michael  Este,  John  Milton,  father  of  the  poet,  Wilbye,  Hilton, 
Ford,  Cobbold,  Bateson,  and  Kirbye.  Wilbye's  "  Sweet  honey- 
sucking  bees  "  is  a  charming  madrigal.  It  is  universally  ad- 
mitted that  the  madrigals  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  are 
unsurpassed.  They  stand  as  the  best  types  of  English  music, 
notwithstanding  that  this  form  of  composition  was  copied 
from  the  Italians.  The  English  excelled  all  others  as  madrigal 
composers.  There  is  something  essentially  English  both  in 
the  words  and  music  of  these  composers,  whose  madrigals 
sound  as  fresh  and  beautiful  now  as  when  first  composed ; 
and  it  is  no  wonder  that  great  pains  have  been  taken  to  pre- 
serve, publish,  and  perform  this  noble  old  music,  the  pride  of 
all  true  Englishmen. 


Il6  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Orlando  Orlando  Gibbons,  the  youngest  of  three  brothers,   all  of 

whom  attained  fame  as  musicians,  is  the  last  of  this  group  of 
English  composers  to  be  mentioned.  He  was  born  in  1583, 
and  died  of  apoplexy  in  1625  at  Canterbury,  whither  he  had 
gone  with  the  court  to  conduct  the  festival  music  composed 
by  him  for  the  marriage  of  Charles  I.  Although  he  was  dis- 
tinguished as  a  writer  of  madrigals  and  instrumental  music,  he 
gained  even  greater  reputation  by  his  church  music,  which 
won  for  him  the  title  of  "The  English  Palestrina."  His  pieces 
for  the  virginal  are  among  the  best,  and  led  to  his  association 
with  Byrd  and  Bull  in  the  publication  of  "  Parthenia,"  the  first 
collection  of  music  for  the  virginal  ever  printed.  His  galliard 
is  an  interesting  composition. 


PART  II 

ORIGIN  OF  DRAMATIC  MUSIC 
OPERA  AND  ORATORIO 

CHAPTER  X 

ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE    OPERA 

It  was  a  primitive  custom  with  the  cultivated  nations  of 
antiquity  to  give  dramatic  representation  to  the  most  solemn 
ceremonies  of  religious  worship.  In  the  ancient  heathen 
temples  the  responsive  choral  songs,  the  offering  to  the  gods, 
the  sacred  dances,  and  other  devotional  and  symbolical  rites 
of  religion  assumed  a  scenic  form.  The  Greek  drama  was  at 
first  wholly  religious,  but  at  a  later  period  it  became  also  the 
model  of  classic  art,  by  representing  national  and  social  ideas 
and  actions.  Like  Greek  life  itself,  its  ideal  was  to  blend  in 
perfect  harmony  all  its  single  elements ;  in  this  manner 
poetry,  music,  dancing,  scenic  display,  and  action  were  com- 
bined so  as  to  constitute  a  grand,  harmonious  whole. 

In  the  first  ages  of  Christianity  great  opposition  was  shown   Dramatic 
to  theatrical  performances ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  elrl^Chris- 
made  to  extinguish  the  theater,  there  sprang  up  within  the  tian  worship 
church  itself  a  dramatic  element  which  soon  became  a  prom- 
inent feature  of  the  services  of  religious  worship  on  all  great 
occasions  especially  at  Christmas,  during  Passion  Week,  and 
at   Easter.     The   Passion,  Crucifixion,  and   Resurrection  of 
Christ  were  the  subject  of  the  most  impressive  of  these  repre- 
sentations, and  for  this  purpose  the  text  of  the  Evangelist 
was  recited  literally,  and  not  acted  until  at  a  later  period. 

117 


Il8  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

One  priest  recited  the  story,  a  second  the  sayings  of  Jesus, 
another  the  words  of  other  characters,  and  a  choir  of  voices 
represented    the    disciples   and  the  people.    The    text   was 
interspersed  here  and  there  with  ritual  verses  sung  in  Latin, 
to  give  variety  and  expression  to  the  recital,  as  do  the  chorals 
in  the  cantatas  of  the  German  composers  of  church  music  of 
Miracle         the  eighteenth  century.    Thus  gradually  there  developed  a 
p  ays  kind  of  religious  drama.    Such  dramas  were  known  before  the 

tenth  century,  and  ultimately  became  very  popular  throughout 
Europe.  They  served  a  good  end  in  the  Middle  Ages,  for 
the  subjects  of  many  of  these  plays  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  over  the  people,  whose  ideas  and  aspirations  were 
often  elevated  by  the  solemn  spectacles. 

These  miracle  plays  were  given  at  first  in  churches  and 
monasteries,  exclusively  by  ecclesiastics.  Subsequently  they 
were  exhibited  by  laymen  in  the  public  squares  and  streets, 
and  at  length  priests  were  forbidden  to  take  any  part  in  them. 
The  plays  grew  more  and  more  extended  in  form  until  their 
performance  lasted  several  days  and  was  attended  by  thou- 
sands of  people.  Great  corporate  societies  were  founded  at 
Paris,  Rome,  and  other  places.  Jongleurs  and  other  vagrant 
minstrels  and  actors  contributed  their  clever  buffoonery  to  the 
performances,  which  in  consequence  were  rendered  thoroughly 
secular  and  vulgar.  No  subject  was  too  holy  to  escape  the 
coarse  and  burlesque  wit  of  the  participants,  and  these  festi- 
vals degenerated  into  mere  occasions  of  high  carnival. 
The  stage  "The  stage,"  we  are  told,  "consisted  commonly  of  three 
platforms,  raised  one  above  another.  On  the  uppermost  sat 
the  Pater  Caelestis,  surrounded  by  his  angels  ;  on  the  second 
appeared  the  saints  and  glorified  men  ;  while  living  men  occu- 
pied the  lowest.  On  one  side  of  the  stage  appeared  a  dark, 
pitchy,  flaming  cavern,  from  which  issued  hideous  howlings, 
as  of  souls  tormented  by  demons  ;  its  occupants  were  the 
greatest  jesters  and  buffoons  of  the  company,  and  constantly 
ascended  upon  the  stage  to  act  the  comic  parts." 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  119 

The  immense  popularity  of  miracle  plays  in  England  is 
well  attested  by  the  full  records  that  exist  of  the  great  per- 
formances that  were  held  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
particularly  at  York,  Chester,  Coventry,  and  Woodkirk.  At 
Chester  they  were  represented  by  the  incorporated  trades, 
and  the  play  lasted  several  days.  The  representation  covered 
the  whole  period  from  before  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the 
day  of  judgment.  Among  the  subjects  are  the  fall  of  Lucifer, 
performed  by  the  tanners  ;  the  creation,  by  the  drapers ;  the 
deluge,  by  the  dyers  ;  Abraham,  Melchizedek,  and  Lot,  by 
the  barbers  and  wax  chandlers  ;  the  slaughter  of  the  innocents, 
by  the  goldsmiths  ;  the  descent  into  hell,  by  the  cooks,  etc. 

The  miracle  plays  entirely  disappeared  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  with  one  exception,  which  is  the  only  important 
remnant  of  the  popular  sacred  play  now  in  existence.  It  is 
the  solemn  and  impressive  Passion  Play,  given  once  every  ten 
years  by  the  villagers  at  Oberammergau  in  Bavarian  Tyrol. 

Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  church  to  the  popu-  Passion 
lar  plays,  the  ancient  custom  was  continued  through  the  music 
Middle  Ages  of  giving  a  solemn  musical  and  dramatic  repre- 
sentation of  the  Passion  of  Christ  during  the  religious  services 
of  Passion  Week  as  a  part  of  the  Liturgy.  The  practice  of 
representing  the  Evangelist,  Christ,  and  the  other  charac- 
ters of  the  drama  by  persons  can  be  traced  back  as  far  as 
the  twelfth  century.  Not  a  word  of  the  text  was  spoken, 
but  the  single  parts  were  intoned  by  priests,  while  a  chorus 
sung  the  words  of  the  people.  The  oldest  specimens  of  pas- 
sion music  which  have  been  preserved  are  in  Latin  text,  and 
are  by  the  composers,  Obrecht  (150x3),  Galliculus  (1538),  and 
Resinarius  (1544).  The  words  of  Christ  and  the  other  char- 
acters were  not  sung  by  single  voices,  but  by  a  four-part 
chorus.  This  exclusive  chorus  treatment  of  the  text  is  also 
followed,  in  later  examples,  by  Cipriano  de  Rore,  Orlando 
Lasso,  and  others.  It  testifies  to  the  absolute  sway  which 
full  counterpoint  exercised  at  that  time.  Toward  the  end  of 


120  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  first  efforts  were  made  to 
introduce  solo  singing  and  the  modern  recitative  into  dra- 
matic music,  the  passion  music  began  to  show  signs  of  artis- 
tic improvement.  In  two  examples  by  Vittoria,  the  Spanish 
contemporary  of  Palestrina  at  Rome,  the  text  of  the  Evan- 
gelist is  intoned  by  single  voices,  while  the  chorus  of  the 
people,  called  "  turbae,"  are  short  pieces  composed  in  four- 
part  harmony.  One  of  these  passions,  that  according  to  St. 
John,  is  performed  in  the  original  manner,  it  is  said,  at  Rome 
on  every  Good  Friday.  Very  curious  examples  are  those  of 
Scandellus,  Stephani,  a  Burgk,  and  other  German  composers 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  the  words  of  the 
Evangelist  are  intoned  by  a  single  voice,  but  the  words  of 
Jesus  are  generally  sung  by  four  voices,  and  those  of  other 
persons  by  two  and  three  voices,  with  turbae  sung  by  a  full 
chorus.  It  was  not  before  the  eighteenth  century  that  the 
passion  was  developed  into  a  noble,  artistic  form  of  music, 
though  Heinrich  Schiitz  and  other  composers  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  gave  the  older  type  new  life  and  expression, 
as  we  shall  learn  later. 

Secular  During  the  age  of  the  troubadours,  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 

tury, a  kind  of  secular  drama  was  in  vogue.  It  was  a  simple, 
unpretending  play,  something  like  the  modern  vaudeville, — 
a  mixture  of  dialogue  and  songs,  very  bright  and  pleasing. 
Adam  de  la  Hale  was  the  author  of  several  of  these  little 
plays,  one  of  which,  entitled  "  Robin  and  Marion,"  I  have 

"  Robin  and  already  mentioned.  It  is  a  love  affair  between  Robin  and 
Marion. 

When  Marion  has  sung  her  simple  song  young  Auburt,  who 
has  just  returned  from  the  field  of  tournament,  enters  with  a  falcon 
perched  on  his  wrist.  He  addresses  soft  words  to  Marion  ;  she  retorts 
by  declaring  that  she  loves  Robin,  and  begs  Auburt  to  leave  her  in 
peace ;  whereupon  the  young  man  pretends  he  is  deeply  in  love,  and 
leaves  her  with  the  assertion  that  he  is  going  to  drown  himself ;  but, 
instead  of  replying  seriously,  she  turns  his  speech  to  ridicule.  Robin 
then  enters  and  chats  about  the  approaching  wedding.  As  he  turns  to 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  121 

go  away  to  engage  a  minstrel  and  invite  his  friends  to  the  festival, 
young  Auburt  appears  again  and  picks  a  quarrel  with  Robin,  under  the 
pretext  that  he  has  hurt  his  falcon.  They  come  to  blows  ;  Robin  gets  a 
good  beating,  and  is  left  lying  on  the  ground,  while  Auburt  forcibly 
carries  off  Marion.  Gautier,  the  minstrel,  who  witnesses  the  abduction, 
now  comes  forward  and  calls  out  to  Robin,  and  endeavors  to  restore  him 
to  his  senses.  We  do  not  quite  see  how  the  affair  will  end,  but  Auburt, 
tired  of  Marion's  opposition,  returns  of  his  own  free  will  and  delivers 
the  bride  up  to  Robin.  At  this  happy  result  they  all  dance  and  make 
merry  ;  the  minstrel  sings  a  ballad,  and  thus  the  play  ends. 

During  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  we  observe  an  Masques 
increasing  love  for  scenic  representations,  which  grew  more 
artistic  and  cultivated  in  a  corresponding  degree  with  society 
itself.  At  Italian  courts  it  was  the  custom  to  perform  all 
kinds  of  mythological  and  allegorical  spectacles  and  masques, 
in  which  music  generally  bore  a  part,  though  a  subordinate 
one.  We  read  in  Fink's  "  History  of  the  Opera  "  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  singular  masque  which  was  performed  at  the  wed- 
ding feast  of  Duke  Sforza  with  Isabella  of  Aragon,  at  Milan 
in  1388. 

In  the  center  of  a  magnificent  hall,  which  had  a  grand  gallery  around 
it  occupied  by  instrumental  players,  the  table  was  laid  for  the  royal 
feast.  As  soon  as  the  royal  party  had  arrived  and  taken  their  places  the 
feast  began.  The  scene  opened  with  Jason  and  the  Argonauts.  They 
strode  about  with  a  menacing  air,  bringing  the  celebrated  Golden 
Fleece,  which  they  laid  on  the  table  after  they  had  danced  a  ballet  to 
express  their  admiration  for  the  beautiful  bride.  Mercury  now  appeared 
and  related  how  he  and  Apollo,  at  that  time  shepherd  of  King  Admetus 
in  Thessaly,  had  stolen  the  finest,  fattest  calf  of  the  whole  herd  to 
bring  as  a  present  to  the  newly  married  pair.  When  they  had  placed  it 
on  the  table  Diana  entered  the  Hall,  dressed  as  a  huntress  and  accom- 
panied by  her  nymphs  who,  to  the  sound  of  hunting  horns,  brought 
Actaeon  changed  into  a  stag,  on  a  golden  litter,  adorned  with  green 
branches.  The  affair  continued  in  this  way  to  the  end  of  the  feast. 

"  A  dramatic  attempt,"  says  Kiesewetter,  "  having  for  its 
argument  the  bill  of  fare."  The  whole  object  of  this  masque 
was  to  bring  in  the  dishes.  A  century  later  we  witness  a 


122 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Popularity 
of  the 
masque  in 
England 


The  music 
of  the 
masque 


decided  progress  in  the  dramatic  quality  of  such  scenic  dis- 
play, when  Francesco  Beverini  produced  a  sacred  play  called 
"The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,"  which  was  performed  before 
Pope  Innocent  VIII  at  Rome. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Italian  princes  encouraged  the 
drama,  and  sought  to  excel  each  other  at  their  respective 
courts  with  the  splendor  and  variety  of  their  entertainments. 
The  first  masque  performed  in  England  was  at  Greenwich  in 
1512,  "after  the  manner  of  Italy,"  as  we  read.  They  soon 
became  very  common  as  court  entertainments,  and  were  given 
in  splendid  style  ;  the  several  parts  were  generally  represented 
by  the  first  personages  in  the  kingdom ;  if  at  court,  the  king 
and  queen  and  princes  of  the  blood  often  performed  in  them. 
Burney  says,  "  The  English  seem  at  all  times  to  have  received 
more  delight  from  dramas  in  which  the  dialogue  is  spoken 
and  the  songs  incidental,  than  from  such  as  are  sung  through- 
out. ...  Of  the  fourteen  comedies  cf  Shakespeare,  there 
are  but  two  or  three  in  which  he  has  not  introduced  sing- 
ing ;  even  in  most  of  his  tragedies  he  has  manifested  the  same 
predilection  for  music."  Milton's  "Comus"  and  "Arcades" 
are  beautiful  specimens  of  the  masque ;  Ben  Jonson  may  be 
considered  as  the  chief  writer  of  this  kind  of  drama,  and 
Henry  Lawes  was  famous  as  the  composer  of  the  music  to 
many  of  them,  including  "  Comus." 

The  music  of  the  Italian  masque  now  began  to  be  con- 
sidered of  greater  importance.  The  dialogue,  however,  was 
spoken  throughout.  The  music  consisted  of  choruses  in  the 
madrigal  style.  They  were  generally  sung  between  the  acts, 
merely  to  give  change  and  variety  to  the  performance,  or  else 
they  were  introduced  into  the  dramatic  scenes  called  inter- 
mezzi or  intermedii,  which  were  played  between  the  acts,  and 
were  generally  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  drama. 

Some  of  the  most  noted  dramas  of  the  sixteenth  century 
were  set  to  music  by  Alphonso  della  Viola,  a  talented  musician 
of  Willaert's  school  and  director  of  music  at  the  court  of 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  123 

Ferrara.  His  pieces  were  performed  on  several  grand  occa- 
sions at  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and  Venice.  Similar  dramas  are 
reputed  to  have  been  composed  by  Zarlino  and  the  noted 
organist  Luzzasco  of  Venice.  In  all  these  compositions  we 
receive  no  intimation  of  the  future  recitative  and  air,  the 
dialogue  being  invariably  spoken. 

I  have  already  stated  that  in  the  time  of  the  Flemish  com-  Solo  singing 
posers  unison  or  solo  singing  no  longer  existed,  except  as  a  ° 
rude,  popular  music.  This  peculiar  one-sidedness  continued 
until  toward  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  we  meet 
with  the  first  regular  efforts  to  allow  the  single  voice  to  be 
heard.  Before  that  time  counterpoint  ruled  supreme  in  secu- 
lar as  well  as  sacred  music,  and  melody  in  the  proper  sense 
was  literally  forgotten  by  the  learned  musicians  ;  consequently 
melody  had  to  be  rediscovered  again,  so  to  speak,  about  the 
year  1600.  The  simple  and  natural  songs  of  the  people  dwelt 
in  obscurity,  and,  for  the  most  part,  the  educated  musicians 
neglected  to  develop  them  into  extended  artistic  forms  or 
failed  to  invent  original  melodies  of  equal  beauty  and  native 
simplicity.  At  the  most  they  made  no  further  use  of  popular 
melodies  than  as  a  cantus  firmus  around  which  they  might 
weave  a  network  of  elaborate  counterpoint.  The  result  was, 
that  in  the  masses  and  motets  of  the  most  celebrated  masters 
melody  in  the  free  modern  sense  was  wanting :  the  indi- 
vidual found  no  voice  for  his  personal  emotions  in  church 
music.  The  absolute  power  contrapuntal  music  then  exer- 
cised is  fully  displayed  in  the  vocal  music  of  the  drama  pre- 
vious to  this  revolution  in  style.  Not  only  did  the  choruses 
consist  invariably  of  full-voiced  madrigals,  but  even  the  prin- 
cipal characters  of  the  play  did  not  sing  their  parts  individually, 
being  represented  by  a  chorus  behind  the  scenes  singing  the 
madrigals  in  full  harmony.  Vecchi  published  comedies  com- 
posed for  chorus,  dialogue,  and  monologue,  all  as  five-part  mad- 
rigals. Orlando  Lasso  wrote  a  comic  duet  for  two  choruses,  the 
subject  of  which  was  Pantaleone  and  his  servant.  The  servant, 


124  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

who  is  at  the  wine  cask  in  the  cellar,  is  called  by  his  master, 
and,  being  rather  tipsy,  in  his  fear  lets  the  spigot  drop.  The 
master  then  goes  into  the  cellar,  and  while  groping  about,  they 
berate  each  other  in  five-part  chorus  till  the  spigot  is  found. 
Attempts  The  first  feeble  attempt  to  free  the  single  voice  from  the 
the^olo  UC '  W£b  °f  counterpoint  was  made  at  the  performance  of  an  inter- 
voice  mezzo  at  the  wedding  festivities  of  the  Duke  de'  Medici  in 
1539.  The  happy  idea  occurred  to  some  one  to  sing  the 
highest  part  of  a  four-part  madrigal  by  Francesco  Corteccia 
as  a  solo,  while  the  other  parts  were  played  on  strings  and 
wind  instruments.  This  rude  beginning  found  imitation,  and 
in  a  similar  piece  by  Corteccia,  performed  in  1565,  the  music 
of  Venus,  originally  written  for  an  eight-part  chorus,  was 
sung  by  a  single  voice  on  the  stage,  while  the  remaining  voice 
parts  were  executed  by  instruments  behind  the  scenes.  Let 
me  not  give  the  impression,  however,  that  this  step  led  imme- 
diately to  the  desired  emancipation;  for  though  now  the  solo 
voice  could  be  heard,  yet  it  was  nothing  more  than  a  mere 
thread  or  fraction  of  the  contrapuntal  whole,  and  when  sung 
separately  was  distinguished  by  no  beauty  of  its  own,  but 
was  quite  dependent  on  the  harmony  furnished  by  the  other 
voices.  Nevertheless,  musicians  began  to  vary  the  stiffness 
of  the  solo  part  by  the  introduction  of  runs  and  other  orna- 
ments. This  practice  became  so  common  that  it  soon  led  to 
a  bravura  style  of  singing,  proving  that  the  art  of  vocaliza- 
tion had  already  begun  to  be  highly  cultivated  in  Italy  before 
the  year  1600.  This  peculiar  attempt  to  introduce  solo  singing 
on  the  dramatic  stage  was  a  makeshift,  and  yet  it  served  to 
show  that  the  feeling  was  growing  stronger  and  stronger  for 
solo  music,  that  the  lyric  element  was  essential  to  musi- 
cal art,  and  that  the  absolute  reign  of  polyphonic,  unaccom- 
panied choral  singing  was  over.  This  revolution  of  style  and 
struggle  against  counterpoint  was  a  new  birth,  —  the  musical 
renaissance,  which  came  two  centuries  after  the  renaissance 
of  the  other  arts. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  125 

The  introduction  and  establishment  of  the  opera  and  ora-  Beginning 
torio,  the  invention  of  the  recitative  and  air  with  orchestral 
accompaniment,  and  other  innovations  and  improvements 
in  music  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
represent  an  important  turning  point, — a  new  stage  of  prog- 
ress which  has  been  paralleled  only  during  two  other  periods 
of  musical  history,  namely,  the  rise  and  development  of 
counterpoint  in  mediaeval  church  music  and  the  develop- 
ment of  instrumental  music  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries.  These  are  the  three  great  historical  stages  in 
modern  music. 

Mediaeval  church  music  did  not  fulfill  the  entire  mission  of  The  mission 
the  art.  Although  its  object  was  the  highest,  and  it  employed 
the  most  elevated  thoughts  and  emotions  in  the  adoration  of 
God,  it  did  not  embrace  in  its  scope  all  the  nature  of  man, 
leaving  out  an  important  element  of  artistic  representation,  — 
his  earthly  acts  and  passions.  It  was  reserved,  therefore,  for 
secular  music  to  supply  this  want,  without  derogating  any- 
thing from  itself,  though  the  name  would  naturally  suggest 
the  worldly  in  opposition  to  the  spiritual.  We  call  it  secular 
music  because  it  is  independent  of  ecclesiastical  interests, 
and  owes  its  origin  and  cultivation  to  the  natural  impulse  of 
the  people.  Music  expresses,  outside  of  the  church,  the 
highest  embodiments  of  religion  and  morality,  at  least  as  far 
as  their  principles  exert  a  deep  influence  on  the  sentiments 
and  actions  of  men,  and  then  it  stands  on  as  high  a  plane  of 
adoration  as  within  the  church.  But  without  the  church,  it 
can  also  give  full  expression  to  purely  human  sympathies  and 
acts.  The  Reformation  was  undoubtedly  the  means  of  giving 
a  new  impulse  to  the  cultivation  of  secular  music,  just  as  it 
was  the  source  of  a  new  style  of  sacred  music  of  popular 
origin.  In  that  age  of  new  ideas  light  could  not  fail  to  pene- 
trate the  minds  of  lovers  of  music  as  well  as  of  literature  and 
art  in  general.  Italy  was  rich  in  art  and  learning ;  an  in- 
creasing interest  was  taken  in  antiquity,  especially  in  Greek 


126 


THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


The  mon- 
ody 


Church 
concertos. 
Ludovico 
Viadana 


literature,  philosophy,  and  art.  This  led  to  the  ardent  desire 
on  the  part  of  cultivated  men  to  restore  Greek  tragedy.  Enthu- 
siasts painted  in  glowing  colors  the  splendors  of  Greek  music  ; 
they  unanimously  believed  that  modern  counterpoint  could  not 
compare  with  ancient  music,  either  in  regard  to  the  simple 
beauty  of  the  song,  or  the  rhythmical  clearness  and  rhetorical 
expression  of  the  words ;  but  no  monuments  of  Greek  music 
existed,  and  they  had  to  trust  to  their  own  imaginations  as  to 
its  nature. 

This  idea  of  restoring  the  ancient  drama  and  music  was 
first  advanced  at  the  meetings  of  a  society  of  scholars  and 
artists,  held  at  the  residence  of  a  Florentine  nobleman,  Gio- 
vanni Bardi,  count  of  Vernio,  a  man  well  versed  in  literature, 
besides  being  a  composer  and  a  poet.  The  first  attempt  to  put 
the  idea  into  execution  was  made  by  a  member  of  this  society, 
Vincenzo  Galilei  (father  of  the  celebrated  astronomer),  a 
clever  player  on  the  lute  and  a  composer.  He  obtained  a 
copy  of  three  ancient  hymns  with  their  melodies,  which  he 
published  in  1581,  but  without  understanding  the  musical 
notation.  He  also  attempted  to  compose  for  a  single  voice 
in  imitation  of  ancient  music,  notwithstanding  his  ignorance 
of  it,  and  set  some  of  the  lines  of  Dante  and  the  Lamentations 
of  Jeremiah  to  music.  These  crude  experiments  were  called 
monodies ;  they  were  the  first  regular  pieces  for  a  single 
voice  not  developed  from  counterpoint. 

Another  member  of  this  society  was  Giulio  Caccini,  a 
Roman  attached  to  the  Florentine  court,  who  composed 
monodies  of  a  more  pleasing  character  than  Galilei.  He 
adopted  a  kind  of  arioso  style,  suggestive  rather  of  the  future 
aria  than  of  recitative.  Caccini  was  more  distinguished  as  a 
singer  and  master  of  singing  than  as  a  contrapuntist.  To  him 
belongs  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  present  this  new  kind 
of  music  to  the  world;  his  monodies  were  published  in  1601. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  monodies  of  Galilei  and 
Caccini  sprang  up  a  similar  class  of  sacred  music,  called 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  127 

church  concertos  (concerti  da  c/aesa),  which  were  melodies  for 
one  or  more  solo  voices  set  to  an  organ  bass.  They  were 
originated  by  Ludovico  Viadana,  who  after  leaving  Rome 
was  made  director  of  music  at  the  cathedral  at  Fano  in 
1600,  and  afterwards  went  to  Mantua.  The  first  of  these 
sacred  concertos  he  composed  as  early  as  1595,  but  they  were 
not  published  till  the  year  1602.  In  these  pieces  the  instru- 
mental accompaniment  acquired  a  new  significance ;  formerly 
it  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the  web  of  counterpoint, 
but  with  Viadana  it  held  about  the  same  relation  to  the  solo 
voice  as  it  does  at  the  present  day,  at  least,  so  far  as  it 
enriched  and  supported  the  melody  with  its  simple  harmony. 

Viadana's  concertos  were  accompanied  on  the  organ.  He 
inaugurated  a  new  and  valuable  effect  of  employing  an  inde- 
pendent obligato  bass,  called  basso  continue.  By  this  con- 
tinuous bass  the  solo  voices  were  not  only  sustained,  but 
enabled  to  move  more  freely  and  independently,  inasmuch  as 
any  thin  places  in  the  harmony  that  might  arise  from  the 
movement  of  the  voices  could  easily  be  filled  by  means  of 
this  bass,  and  chords  introduced  at  the  right  moment.  Viadana 
was  not  the  originator  of  the  basso  generale,  or  thorough 
bass,  as  reputed.  This  invention,  which  enabled  the  organist 
to  supply  the  full  harmony  from  figures  and  other  signs 
applied  to  the  bass,  was  in  use  at  a  previous  time. 

In  the  year  1 590  Emilio  de'  Cavalieri,  also  a  member  of  the  Emilio  de' 
Bardi  society  at  Florence,  attempted  a  revival  of  the  ancient  Cavahen 
musical  drama  in  two  pastoral  plays,  called  "II  satiro  "  and 
"La  disperazione  di  Fileno  "  ;  and  the  following  year  with 
another,  entitled  "  II  giuoco  della  cieca."  Although  these 
were  the  first  dramas  ever  set  to  music  throughout,  they  did 
not  meet  with  favor  from  the  society ;  and  these  separate 
efforts  of  Galilei,  Caccini,  Viadana,  and  Cavalieri  had  not 
brought  about  the  expected  revival  of  Greek  music.  The  ari- 
oso style  did  not  suit  the  dramatic  form,  since  they  supposed 
the  dialogue  of  the  ancients  to  have  been  not  exactly  speech 


128  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

nor  song,  but  something  midway  between  declamation  and 
melody,  or  what  we  call  recitative. 

Jacopo  Peri  The  honor  of  inventing  the  modern  recitative  is  due  to 
Caccini  and  Jacopo  Peri.  Peri  was  a  Florentine  by  birth, 
and  was  a  clever  singer  and  master  of  the  clavichord.  He  de- 
voted himself  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm  to  this  "  new  art"  of 
music,  and  became  a  member  of  the  society,  which  after  the 
departure  of  Bardi  to  Rome,  met  at  the  house  of  a  certain 
Corsi.  It  was  in  this  connection  that  Peri  composed  the  drama 
entitled  "  Dafne,"  by  the  poet  Rinuccini,  and  the  piece  was 
performed  at  Corsi's  house  in  the  year  1594  or  1595.  It  met 
with  general  applause,  for  their  aspirations  had  in  a  measure 
been  fulfilled.  Thus  arose  the  recitative,  or  stile  rappresenta- 
tivo,  which  was  developed  in  the  following  century  into  its 
modern  form.  In  1600  Rinuccini  and  Peri  brought  forward  a 
new  play  called  "  Euridice,"  which  was  given  at  the  marriage 
of  Henry  IV  of  France  with  Maria  de'  Medici. 

"L'animaeil     During  the  same  year  there  appeared  at  Rome  a  kind  of 
corpo  moral,  allegorical  drama  called  "  L'anima  e  il  corpo,"  composed 

by  Cavalieri,  which  was  played  on  a  stage  in  the  oratory 
of  the  Convent  Maria  in  Vallicella,  with  scenery,  decorations, 
and  dances.  The  characters  are  Time,  Pleasure,  the  Body, 
the  World,  Human  Life,  etc.,  from  which  an  idea  may  easily 
be  formed  of  the  nature  of  the  subject.  The  orchestra  was 
placed  behind  the  scenes,  in  order  not  to  drown  the  voices  of 
the  solo  singers,  and  the  actors  were  recommended  to  carry 
instruments  in  their  hands,  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of 
accompanying  their  own  recitations.  The  dances  were  per- 
formed to  the  music  of  the  chorus.  "  The  performance," 
says  the  author,  "  may  be  finished  with  or  without  a  dance. 
If  without,  the  last  chorus  may  be  doubled  in  all  its  parts, 
vocal  and  instrumental ;  but  if  a  dance  is  preferred,  a  verse 
is  to  be  sung,  accompanied  sedately  and  reverentially  by  the 
dance.  Then  shall  succeed  other  grave  steps  and  figures  of 
the  solemn  kind."  Considering  the  place  of  representation, 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  129 

these  directions  sound  very  odd.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
name  "oratorio,"  but  comparing  this  piece  with  the  later 
specimens  of  music  bearing  that  name  we  can  trace  no 
resemblance. 

These  feeble  beginnings  of  the  musical  drama,  not  called 
opera  till  the  middle  of  the  century,  soon  spread  to  other 
parts  of  Italy.  As  early  as  1601  the  "  Euridice  "  of  Rinuccini 
and  Peri  was  brought  out  at  Bologna,  and  in  1604,  Peri's 
"  Dafne  "  was  performed  at  Parma. 

In  all  these  operas  the  recitative  was  exceedingly  stiff  and 
inexpressive ;  the  chorus  held  a  very  subordinate  part,  and 
was  insignificant  in  ideas  and  treatment,  and  the  solos  were 
crude  in  melody.  Yet  these  works  possessed  the  general  out- 
lines of  the  future  musical  drama,  —  the  recitative  for  the 
dialogue,  the  solo  arioso  style  for  the  more  emotional  places 
in  the  text,  and  the  chorus  to  give  voice  and  expression  to 
the  sentiments  of  the  people.  The  use  made  of  the  instru- 
mental accompaniment  well  illustrates  the  primitive  character 
of  the  first  opera.  The  orchestra  was  composed  of  a  singular  The  or- 
combination  of  instruments.  Some  of  our  modern  instruments 
had  already  been  invented,  but  the  players  had  not  yet  learned 
their  full  capabilities ;  yet  these  dramatic  experiments  soon 
led  to  a  much  wider  field  of  musical  expression,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  seventeenth  century  instrumental  music  began 
to  claim  universal  attention.  Besides  various  stringed  instru- 
ments played  with  a  bow,  like  the  viola,  viola  da  gamba  (our 
modern  violoncello),  viola  da  braccio,  and  others,  there  were 
various  mediaeval  wind  and  stringed  instruments,  such  as  the 
lute,  clavichord,  chitarrone,  harp,  cornetto,  storto,  lirone, 
rebec,  etc.  The  drama  opened  generally  with  a  madrigal 
accompanied  by  the  orchestra,  which  merely  played  the  voice 
parts,  or  else  it  was  introduced  by  a  flourish  of  trumpets 
twice  repeated.  During  the  course  of  the  play  the  instru- 
ments performed  several  short  pieces,  —  interludes,  introduc- 
tions, and  dances. 


130 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Compari- 
son of  opera 
with  Greek 
tragedy 


A  new 
form  of 
recitative 


It  is  evident  that  the  first  opera  had  hardly  more  than 
a  mere  external  likeness  to  its  ancient  Grecian  model.  To 
reproduce  the  spirit  of  Greek  tragedy  implied  similar  condi- 
tions of  life,  the  same  belief  in  the  gods  of  their  mythology ; 
and  though  Christians  might  study  the  artistic  representations 
of  gods  and  heroes  as  they  appeared  on  the  ancient  stage, 
they  could  not  return  to  phases  of  thought  and  feeling  charac- 
teristic of  a  more  juvenile  age  of  the  world.  It  is  true  that 
the  first  opera  composers  copied  at  the  outset  the  general 
form  of  the  Greek  tragedy, —  the  recited  dialogue,  the  chorus, 
the  personages,  as  well  as  the  general  action  and  story  of  the 
play ;  but  even  this  likeness  gradually  disappeared  as  the 
music  grew  more  independent  —  as  the  recitative  and  air  were 
developed.  The  ancients  had  a  kind  of  musical  recitation 
which  was  subordinate  to  the  rhythm  and  rhetoric  of  the 
words,  or  else  merely  accompanied  movements  of  the  body  in 
dancing.  This  absolute  bondage  to  the  words  did  not  admit 
of  the  melody  as  we  understand  it.  Even  in  the  Christian 
era  it  was  long  before  the  tones  were  freed  from  this  slavish 
dependence  on  the  meter  of  the  words  ;  and  when  this  had 
been  attained  in  part  in  the  Gregorian  age,  the  slow,  monoto- 
nous intoning  of  the  psalms  in  the  Catholic  Church,  which 
was  practised  for  centuries,  hardly  answered  to  the  name 
of  recitative  or  melody. 

Peri  and  his  contemporaries  thought  they  were  restoring 
the  ancient  recitative,  but  in  reality  they  were  unfolding  a 
new  element  in  music  ;  for  the  instrumental  accompaniment 
on  which  the  new  recitative  was  built  up,  rude  as  it  was  at 
first,  stands  in  marked  contrast  to  the  a  cappella  church  music, 
which  gave  no  scope  for  instrumental  accompaniment  or  solo 
melody.  A  simple  ground  bass  was  held  with  few  changes, 
while  the  voice  accommodated  itself  to  the  harmonic  intervals 
agreeing  with  this  bass.  The  specimens  at  hand  of  Peri, 
Caccini,  and  others  seem  intolerably  monotonous  to  our  ears, 
but  subsequently  a  rapid  improvement  took  place,  both  in 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  OPERA  131 

regard  to  the  melodious  treatment  of  the  voice  part  and  to 
the  changes  of  harmony  which  accompanied  it.  At  points 
where  the  arioso  style  was  introduced,  the  accompaniment 
became  more  animated,  and  when  the  voices  paused  short 
ritornelles  were  played,  in  order  to  relieve  the  voice  and  give 
variety  to  the  effect.  This  new  music  must  have  been  listened 
to  with  delight  by  ears  not  yet  surfeited  with  higher  beauties. 
As  regards  the  chorus,  it  held  a  place  and  meaning  in  Greek  The 
tragedy  which  was  almost  entirely  lost  in  the  modern  drama ;  c 
for  then  it  expressed  by  the  mouths  of  the  people  the  voice 
of  Fate,  judging  of  the  sentiments  and  actions  of  the  charac- 
ters of  the  play.  The  founders  of  the  modern  musical  dramas 
selected  the  subjects  of  their  plays  from  ancient  mythology 
and  history,  but  they  took  no  deep  interest  in  the  religious, 
national,  and  social  ideas  and  deeds  which  lay  at  the  founda- 
tion of  Greek  life  and  art.  The  refined  dilettanti  of  Florence 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  could  well  appre- 
ciate the  classic  beauty  of  ancient  art,  but  the  gods  and  heroes 
they  sought  to  bring  to  life  on  the  stage  were  the  mere  pup- 
pets and  shadows  of  their  former  selves.  Love,  and  that  not 
of  the  highest  type,  was  the  predominating  subject  of  the 
drama,  while  all  mythology,  all  history,  real  or  reputed,  were 
made  to  serve  the  most  frivolous  and  dreary  commonplaces 
of  modern  gallantry.  "  Gods  and  heroes  were  made  to  sigh 
like  amorous  shepherds.  Simple  Thracian  shepherds  gave 
utterance  only  to  the  most  fashionable,  lackadaisical  speeches, 
in  the  style  of  genteel  Florentine  society." 


CHAPTER  XI 

PROGRESS  AND   SPREAD  OF  THE  OPERA 

Opposition  The  progress  of  the  opera  in  the  early  stages  of  its  career 
;  opera  wag  sjow  ancj  insignificant  in  regard  to  the  character  of 
both  the  music  and  the  play.  The  efforts  of  dilettanti  and 
musicians  of  limited  attainments,  like  Cavalieri,  Caccini,  Peri, 
and  their  associates,  could  not  be  rewarded  with  immediate 
results,  yet  they  are  deserving  of  acknowledgment  as  the  first 
indispensable  steps  in  a  new  field  of  musical  endeavor.  At 
the  outset  the  learned  contrapuntists  were  naturally  opposed, 
or  at  least  indifferent,  to  a  branch  of  art  so  wholly  unlike  the 
venerable  church  music  to  which  they  devoted  their  talents. 
The  drama,  with  the  exception  of  the  sacred  plays,  had  for 
ages  been  given  up  to  buffoonery  and  vulgar  amusement. 
The  decorations  and  glitter  of  the  stage,  the  pomp  and  show 
of  the  spectacle,  absorbed  the  attention  ;  so  much  so  that  the 
text  was  almost  entirely  disregarded,  and  the  slow  and  heavy 
recitative  which  the  Florentine  dilettanti  had  introduced 
remained  for  a  long  time  a  kind  of  experiment. 

First  The  opera  was  at  first  reserved  for  the  exclusive  pleasure 

of  the  rich  and  great  at  princely  marriages  and  entertain- 
ments. The  earliest  public  exhibition  of  the  opera  was  given 
at  Venice  in  1637,  on  which  occasion  the  "Andromeda," 
composed  by  Francesco  Manelli,  was  performed.  Under  Mon- 
teverde,  Cavalli,  and  Cesti  the  opera  at  Venice  soon  became 
famous.  Other  opera  houses  were  opened  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years,  and  representations  were  given  almost  daily,  while 
at  Rome,  Bologna,  and  other  Italian  cities,  opera  houses 
were  not  so  common.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  no  less 
than  three  hundred  and  fifty-seven  operas,  the  work  of  forty 


PROGRESS  AND   SPREAD   OF  THE  OPERA        133 

composers,  were  performed  at  Venice.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  musical  drama  had  attained  general  publicity  and 
popularity  that  the  name  "  opera  "  was  applied  to  it ;  hitherto 
it  was  called  "dramma  per  musica,"  or  simply  "  tragedia." 

The  first  important  steps  in  the  musical  advancement  of  Claudio 
the  opera  were  taken  by  Claudio  Montevercle  (born  at  Cre-  Monteverde 
mona  in  1568).  He  was  a  pupil  in  music  of  Ingegneri,  and 
was  a  fine  viola  player.  His  career  began  at  Mantua,  as 
director  of  music  at  the  court.  His  first  opera,  "  Orfeo,"  was 
produced  there  in  1607 ;  in  the  following  year  appeared  his 
"  Arianna,"  and  the  opera  with  ballet,  entitled  "  II  ballo  delle 
Ingrate."  The  most  important  years  of  his  life  were  spent 
at  Venice,  from  1613  till  his  death  in  1643.  As  director  of 
music  at  Venice  he  composed  several  operas,  the  "  Proserpina 
rapita,"  " L' incoronazione  di  Poppea,"  "L'Adone,"  "Ilritorno 
d'Ulisse,"  and  "  Le  nozze  di  Enea  con  Lavinia."  His  ''Ari- 
anna" was  performed  again  in  1640  with  particular  success. 
Some  of  these  works  are  known  only  by  name.  Monteverde's 
reputation  was  gained  chiefly  as  a  composer  of  operas  and 
madrigals,  though  he  wrote  some  sacred  music.  He  holds  a 
notable  place  in  musical  history  as  a  bold  innovator  in  his 
treatment  of  harmony,  and  the  honor  is  claimed  for  him  of 
having  been  the  first  composer  to  use  discords  freely  without 
preparation.  He  did  what  no  other  musicians  before  his  day 
had  ventured  to  do,  namely,  to  employ  unprepared  minor 
sevenths  and  diminished  triads,  even  in  the  extreme  parts  of 
a  composition,  as  well  as  suspensions  of  the  seventh  with 
the  second  and  fourth  and  other  dissonant  combinations.  In- 
deed, there  is  scarcely  any  combination  of  dissonant  intervals 
which  he  did  not  boldly  adopt  in  order  to  give  expression  to 
the  words. 

Like  the  innovators  of  the  present  day  Monteverde  met  Opposition 
with  determined  opposition  from  many  of  his  contemporaries,   *°rde°nt 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  whom  was  Giovanni   Maria 
Artusi,  of  Bologna,  the  learned  writer  on  counterpoint,  who 


134  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

published  a  severe  criticism  of  Monteverde's  music  of  the 
future.  Monte verde  did  not  suffer  in  worldly  estimation, 
however,  from  opposition ;  on  the  contrary,  his  name  subse- 
quently acquired  an  importance  which  it  has  not  entirely 
deserved,  though  many  of  his  steps  were  in  the  right  direc- 
tion. Monteverde  was  anticipated  in  his  use  of  discords,  in  a 
very  large  degree,  by  Cipriano  de  Rore  and  other  Venetian 

His  services  masters.  The  most  substantial  service  which  Monteverde 
rendered  music  was  to  heighten  the  effect  of  the  dramatic 
action  and  lyric  passion  of  the  play  by  means  of  a  more  liberal 
use  of  the  orchestral  accompaniment  and  by  the  introduction 
of  the  true  arioso  style  of  singing.  Before  his  day  the  instru- 
ments served  a  very  subordinate  role,  merely  doubling  the 
vocal  parts  of  the  madrigals  which  then  formed  the  entire 
chorus  of  the  opera,  while  the  only  accompaniment  for  the 
recitative  was  the  lute,  harpsichord,  or  chitarrone.  But 
Monteverde  adopted  for  this  purpose  a  number  of  bowed 
stringed  instruments  and  wind  instruments,  as,  for  example, 
regals  and  organi  di  legno,  which  were  small  portable  organs 
with  flute  stops.  They  were  selected  to  accompany  the  recita- 
tives singly  or  in  combination,  according  to  the  personation 
and  the  requirements  of  the  words.  Thus,  in  his  opera 
"  Orfeo,"  the  genius  of  Music,  who  speaks  the  prologue,  is 
accompanied  by  two  clavicembali,  or  harpsichords ;  Orpheus 
by  ten  mole  da  braccio,  or  tenor  viols ;  a  chorus  of  nymphs  and 
shepherds  by  an  arpa  doppia,  or  harp  with  double  strings  ; 
Hope  by  two  violini  piccoli  alia  Francese,  or  violins  ;  Proser- 
pina by  three  viole  da  gamba,  the  forerunner  of  the  modern 
violoncello  ;  and  Pluto  by  four  trombones. 

Analysis  of  The  overture  was  called  a  toccata ;  it  was  a  short  piece  of 
harmony  in  five  parts,  for  a  trumpet  and  other  instruments, 
and  was  directed  to  be  played  three  times  before  the  raising 
of  the  curtain.  Then  the  prologue  is  delivered  in  recitative, 
its  purport  being  to  explain  the  argument  of  the  piece  and 
bespeak  the  attention  of  the  audience.  The  opera  begins  with 


PROGRESS  AND   SPREAD  OF  THE  OPERA        135 

a  monologue  in  recitative  by  a  shepherd,  followed  by  a  chorus 
in  five  parts,  accompanied  by  all  the  instruments.  Other 
choruses  are  directed  to  be  accompanied  in  different  ways,  — 
by  viola,  flutes,  and  guitars.  There  are  no  airs  for  a  single 
voice,  but  recitatives,  choruses,  trios,  and  duets  make  up  the 
piece,  which  concludes  with  a  dance  to  a  lively  strain  called  a 
moresca,  probably  a  Moorish  air.  In  the  course  of  the  opera 
short  instrumental  movements  called  symphonies  and  ritor- 
nelles  were  played  ;  this  was  an  idea  borrowed  from  Venetian 
church  music.  Monteverde  originated  the  peculiar  effect  of 
the  tremolo  of  the  stringed  instruments.  In  order  to  express 
vividly  the  agitation  and  passion  of  a  battle  scene,  he  made 
the  violinists  repeat  their  notes  in  rapid  succession  by  an 
upward  and  downward  movement  of  the  bow.  This  novelty 
was  at  first  derided  by  the  musicians,  but,  nevertheless,  has  con- 
tinued to  be  used  ever  since  as  a  perfectly  legitimate,  indispen- 
sable, and  characteristic  effect  of  modern  orchestral  music. 

At  Venice,  Monteverde 's  successors  in  dramatic  music  were  Cavalli  and 
Cavalli  and   Cesti.     Francesco   Caletti-Bruni,   called   Cavalli,        u 
was  born  at  Crema  in  1600.     In  1617  he  was  singer  under 
Monteverde  at  St.  Mark's.    He  was  appointed  organist  of  the 
second  organ  in  1638,  and  chapelmaster  in  1668.    His  career 
as  an  opera  composer  began  in  1639,  and  in  the  course  of  the 
following  thirty  years  he  produced  at  least  thirty-nine  operas, 
some  of  which  became  great  favorites.     His  "Giasone"  and 
"  Ercole  amante  "  achieved  marked  success  all  over  Italy. 

Marco  Antonio  Cesti,  a  Florentine  monk,  was  born  in  1625. 
He  was  appointed  chapelmaster  by  Emperor  Leopold  I,  and 
died  at  Venice  in  1670.  His  operas  became  universally  popu- 
lar, his  first  one,  "Orontea,"  holding  its  place  on  the  stage 
for  nearly  forty  years.  From  a  specimen  of  this  opera,  printed 
by  Burney,  we  discern  a  decided  improvement  on  the  recita- 
tive and  arioso  style,  in  comparison  with  Monteverde  and 
earlier  opera  composers.  Cesti  composed  numerous  cantatas 
in  the  style  of  his  teacher,  Carissimi. 


136 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Carissimi 


Develop- 
ment of  the 
air  and  reci- 
tative 


Giacomo  Carissimi,  chapelmaster  at  the  church  of  St.  Apol- 
linare  at  Rome,  was  the  most  remarkable  musician  of  his  day. 
He  was  born  probably  about  the  year  1604,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Rome,  and  died  in  1674.  It  is  not  known  that  he  composed 
for  the  stage,  but  he  is  honored  as  the  originator  of  the 
chamber  cantata.  This  music  is  dramatic,  but  is  performed 
without  any  scenic  display  or  action.  There  are  no  dramatic 
personages,  but  musical  characters  who  sing  in  recitative 
and  air.  In  form  the  cantata  resembled  the  modern  oratorio, 
with  the  exception  of  the  subject,  which  was  always  secular. 
It  is  possible  that  the  idea  of  this  kind  of  music  was  suggested 
to  Carissimi  as  a  substitute  for  the  opera,  which  was  less 
encouraged  at  Rome  than  in  other  Italian  cities.  The  church 
gave  its  powerful  support  exclusively  to  the  cultivation  of 
sacred  music.  By  means  of  the  cantata  the  composer  could 
adopt  all  the  new  effects  of  music  without  resorting  to  the 
stage  and  shocking  the  severe  taste  of  those  educated  to  the 
solemn  harmonies  of  Palestrina.  Under  Carissimi's  genius 
the  air  and  recitative  now  gained,  as  if  by  magic,  the  principal 
characteristics  of  style  that  distinguish  them  at  the  present 
day,  although  the  musical  periods  have  since  become  far  more 
extended  and  refined.  Carissimi  also  rendered  valuable  serv- 
ice to  the  development  of  the  oratorio,  not  only  indirectly  by 
means  of  the  cantata  but  by  his  works  bearing  the  name  of 
oratorio.  His  oratorios  display  remarkable  chorus  effects,  and 
the  recitatives  and  airs  are  acceptable  to  our  modern  taste. 
His  orchestral  accompaniments  do  not  mark  any  particular 
progress ;  they  are  quite  simple  parts,  played  by  violins,  con- 
trabass, and  the  organ.  Carissimi  composed  a  number  of 
masses  and  other  church  music.  He  was  also  remarkable  as 
a  master  of  singing  and  vocalization,  and  was  the  direct  fore- 
runner of  the  famous  Pistocchi  and  Bernacchi,  who  brought 
the  so-called  chamber  singing  to  its  full  development.  Caris- 
simi's works  were  models  to  his  disciples  and  successors,  and 
the  chamber  cantata  soon  became  the  favorite  style  of  music, 


PROGRESS  AND   SPREAD  OF  THE  OPERA        137 

and  influenced  the  entire  art  of  composition,  as  the  madrigal 
did  a  century  before.  The  pleasing,  attractive  style  of  the 
cantata  stood  in  strong  contrast  with  the  older  church  music, 
and  a  cappella  singing  soon  gave  place  to  a  more  varied  and 
florid  style.  Solo  singing  and  free  instrumental  accompani- 
ment, lyric  and  dramatic  expression,  worked  their  way  into 
church  music,  and  in  the  course  of  the  following  eighteenth 
century,  the  so-called  beautiful  style  supplanted  the  elevated 
style  of  church  music.  These  terms  "beautiful"  and  "ele- 
vated," however,  are  not  used  to  imply  that  the  beautiful  was 
unknown  in  the  older  music,  nor  that  elevated  and  sublime 
effects  were  no  longer  common  after  the  time  of  Palestrina 
and  Orlando  Lasso. 

A  celebrated  contemporary  of  Carissimi  was  Alessandro  Alessandro 
Stradella,  whose  works,  as  far  as  they  are  known,  are  among 
the  best  of  that  period.  Burney  prints  some  five  extracts 
from  his  sacred  compositions,  and  a  romantic  account  of  his 
life.  The  power  of  his  music  is  illustrated  by  his  incredible 
escape  from  assassination  at  the  hands  of  hired  ruffians  em- 
ployed by  his  implacable  enemy,  a  Venetian  nobleman.  It  was 
at  the  performance  of  one  of  his  oratorios  in  the  church  of 
St.  John  Lateran  that  the  assassins  determined  to  dispatch 
Stradella,  "  but  the  excellence  of  the  music  joined  to  the  rap- 
ture that  was  expressed  by  the  whole  congregation  made  such 
an  impression  and  softened  the  stony  hearts  of  these  ruffians 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  incline  them  to  relent,  and  to  think  it 
would  be  a  pity  to  take  away  the  life  of  a  man  whose  genius 
and  abilities  were  the  delight  of  all  Italy.  An  instance  of  the 
miraculous  powers  of  modern  music,"  says  Burney,  "  superior, 
perhaps,  to  any  that  could  be  well  authenticated  of  the 
ancient."  The  famous  piece  called  "  Stradella's  Prayer"  has 
found  a  permanent  place  in  music,  but  it  is  hardly  probable 
that  Stradella  was  the  composer  of  it,  for  the  work  gives  in- 
ternal evidence  of  a  later  origin.  Stradella's  compositions  are 
numerous ;  among  them  are  eleven  dramas  and  six  oratorios. 


138 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Allegri 


Alessandro 
Scarlatti 


The  dramatic  incidents  of  his  life  furnished  the  subject  of  the 
famous  opera,  "  Stradella,"  by  Flotow. 

Among  the  most  distinguished  Italian  composers  of  church 
music  in  the  seventeenth  century  were  Allegri,  Benevoli,  and 
Bernabei.  Gregorio  Allegri,  of  the  Correggio  family,  a  pupil 
of  the  elder  Nanini,  was  appointed  papal  singer  in  1629,  and 
died  at  Rome  in  1652.  The  only  music  of  his  that  has  lived 
to  the  present  day  is  his  celebrated  "  Miserere,"  which  is  still 
performed  every  Passion  Week  at  the  Papal  Chapel.  This  is 
the  composition  which  travelers  have  described  so  often,  and 
which  has  been  held  in  awe  and  wonder  as  something  super- 
natural. Although  it  was  forbidden  to  take  a  copy  of  it  from 
the  choir  on  penalty  of  excommunication,  Mozart  and  Men- 
delssohn succeeded  in  writing  down  the  piece  by  ear.  The 
extraordinary  fame  of  this  composition  is  due  in  large  part 
to  the  solemn  ceremonies  of  worship  of  which  it  bears  a  part, 
and  the  way  in  which  it  is  sung.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  the  Roman  style  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Orazio  Benevoli  was  appointed  director  of  music  at  St. 
Peter's  in  1646  and  died  in  1672.  He  composed,  in  the  a 
cappella  style  of  Palestrina,  for  two  or  more  choruses  com- 
bined. His  music  is  pronounced  by  such  judges  as  Burney, 
Reichardt,  and  Fasch  to  be  wonderfully  fine  counterpoint. 
His  pupil,  Giuseppe  Ercole  Bernabei,  director  of  music  at 
Rome  and  afterwards  at  Munich,  was  also  distinguished  as 
a  composer  of  church  music. 

In  Italy,  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
opera,  oratorio,  cantata,  and  melodious  style  of  church  music 
had  fully  superseded  the  old  music,  and  there  now  appeared 
a  master  who  was  destined  to  accomplish  a  great  work  in  the 
further  development  of  these  new  forms.  This  illustrious 
musician  was  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  the  founder  of  the  so- 
called  Neapolitan  school.  He  was  born  at  Trapani,  in  Sicily, 
in  1659  and  died  in  1725.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was  a  pupil 
of  Carissimi  in  Rome.  Later  he  appeared  at  Naples  as  a 


PROGRESS  AND   SPREAD  OF  THE  OPERA        139 

celebrated  singer  and  player  on  the  harp  and  harpsichord. 
In  1680  he  composed  an  opera,  "  L'onesta  nell'  amore,"  for 
Christine,  queen  of  Sweden,  which  was  performed  at  her 
palace  in  Rome.  This  fact  indicates  that  he  had  already 
gained  some  reputation  as  a  composer.  His  opera  "  Pompeo  " 
was  performed  at  the  royal  palace  at  Naples  in  1684,  and  he 
was  styled  a  "maestro  di  cappella"  to  the  queen  of  Naples. 
Ten  years  later,  in  1694,  Scarlatti  was  appointed  chapelmaster 
to  the  viceroy  of  Naples,  and  the  rapid  succession  of  works 
which  he  produced  year  after  year  gave  wings  to  his  fame ; 
yet  it  is  remarkable  that  so  little  is  known  of  the  events  of  the 
life  of  a  great  musician.  This  has  hardly  a  parallel  in  musical 
history,  except  perhaps  in  the  case  of  Sebastian  Bach.  The 
production  of  Scarlatti's  "  Laodicea  e  Berenice"  in  1701 
added  greatly  to  his  reputation.  In  1705  Scarlatti  was 
appointed  assistant  chapelmaster  at  Rome,  and  soon  after  he 
received  the  order  of  the  Golden  Spur.  In  1709  he  returned 
to  Naples  where  he  died. 

Scarlatti  was  a  wonderfully  prolific  composer  in  all  branches  His  versa- 
of  music ;  he  manifested  as  much  learning  in  counterpoint  as  -^,5*" 
originality  and  pleasing  skill  in  dramatic  music.  He  is  said  to 
have  composed  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifteen  operas, 
of  which  only  forty-one  are  extant.  His  secular  cantatas 
exceeded  four  hundred  in  number.  Two  hundred  masses,  of 
which  few  have  been  preserved,  numerous  madrigals  and 
serenades,  seven  oratorios  and  a  passion  music,  besides  a 
number  of  instrumental  pieces  for  the  organ  or  harpsichord, 
furnish  proof  of  his  versatility  and  industry.  The  glory  of 
the  Italian  opera  begins  with  Scarlatti.  As  a  teacher  at  the 
Naples  Conservatory  of  Music,  he  was  sought  by  pupils  from 
all  countries,  and  is  said  to  have  taught  all  Italy  and  Germany. 
Among  his  pupils  were  the  celebrated  Hasse,  and  Quanz,  the 
flute  teacher  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Scarlatti  was  also  one 
of  the  best  singers,  clavichord  and  harp  players  of  his  time. 
Quanz  declared,  "  He  knew  how  to  play  skillfully  on  the 


140  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

clavicymbal,  though  he  did  not  have  the  execution  of  his 
son."  Domenico  Scarlatti,  his  son,  became  one  of  the  great- 
est masters  of  the  clavichord.  He  was  excelled  on  that 
instrument  only  by  Sebastian  Bach, 
influence  of  The  elder  Scarlatti  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the  dra- 
ma^c  art  °f  smging>  just  as  Carissimi  did  on  the  chamber  style, 
and  he  was  also  distinguished  as  an  orchestral  master.  Under 
his  direction  the  orchestra  at  Naples  became  famous.  He 
enlarged  and  refined  the  instrumental  accompaniment,  espe- 
cially in  respect  to  the  treatment  of  the  stringed  instruments. 
He  adopted  an  innovation  of  Lully,  the  French  opera  com- 
poser, namely,  the  instrumental  overture  to  the  opera,  but 
his  overtures  differed  from  the  French  in  having  a  grave 
movement  placed  between  two  allegro  movements  instead  of 
a  quick  movement  between  two  slow  ones.  Scarlatti  continued 
to  build  on  the  foundation  laid  by  Monteverde  and  Carissimi 
in  developing  the  modern  recitative  and  air.  His  genius 
molded  them  into  more  graceful  and  flexible  forms  of  beauty, 
and  he  fairly  inaugurated  the  era  of  melody.  Scarlatti  has 
been  erroneously  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  da  capo  aria. 
This  form  was  known  before  his  day;  we  find  examples  of  it 
in  the  operas  of  Cesti  and  Cavalli.  But  he  did  originate  the 
obligato-accompanied  recitative.  He  likewise  employed  the 
orchestral  accompaniment  in  a  more  independent  manner  than 
formerly ;  we  often  find  melodious  phrases  in  the  instrumental 
part.  It  is  a  great  pity  that  this  genuine  master,  whom  Han- 
del and  other  composers  studied  and  imitated,  should  not  be 
better  known  ;  but,  alas !  the  world  does  not  possess  more  than 
the  merest  fragment  of  his  works.  They  were  scattered  and 
lost,  —  a  common  occurrence  at  that  period.  It  is  easy  to  ac- 
count in  most  cases  for  this  negligence  in  preserving  operas, 
for  the  music  and  text  were  of  secondary  interest  to  the  mere 
spectacle  of  the  play. 


CHAPTER   XII 
ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

The  genius  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti  gave  such  a  powerful  Supremacy 
impulse  to  the  advancement  of  the  opera  and  cantata  that  his  music 
disciples  and  successors  had  only  to  follow  the  course  which 
he  indicated,  in  order  to  reach  a  high  point  of  attainment  from 
which  Italian  music  could  command  the  whole  world.  During 
this  epoch  the  number  and  excellence  of  Italian  composers 
and  singers  were  more  remarkable  than  ever  before  or  since, 
and  for  nearly  a  century  they  held  Europe  in  musical  bondage. 
The  direct  pupils  of  Scarlatti  at  Naples  were  Durante,  Leo, 
Porpora,  and  Greco;  and  they  were  succeeded  by  a  second  gen- 
eration of  masters, —  Jommelli,  Piccini,  Paisiello,  and  others; 
at  Rome  by  Steffani  ;  at  Venice  by  Marcello  and  Lotti  ;  and 
at  Bologna  by  Bononcini,  and  others. 

Francesco  Durante,  the  pupil  and  subsequent  rival  of  Francesco 
Scarlatti,  was  born  in  1684.  He  received  early  musical  instruc- 
tion from  Scarlatti  and  Greco  at  the  conservatories  dei  Poveri 
and  St.  Onofrio,  institutions  of  music  which  Durante  directed 
in  after  years.  He  also  studied  at  Rome  under  Pasquini,  the 
great  organist,  and  gained  there  a  mastery  of  the  church  style 
of  composition.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Naples,  where  he 
remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life,  except  for  a  short  journey 
made  to  Germany.  He  died  at  a  ripe  old  age  in  1755. 
Durante  was  not  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  composer ;  his 
talent  was  exercised  chiefly  in  church  and  chamber  music,  and 
he  was  more  skillful  as  a  contrapuntist  than  as  a  melodist. 
He  advanced  the  art  of  orchestration  in  some  degree,  inas- 
much as  he  produced  a  better  instrumental  ensemble  than  his 
predecessors.  To  the  stringed  quartet  of  the  orchestra  he 

141 


142 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Leonardo 
Leo 


Niccolo 
Porpora 


added  flutes,  bassoons,  horns,  and  trumpets.  Durante's  church 
music  shows  the  tendency  of  the  period  in  which  he  lived ; 
it  is  less  elevated  and  religious  than  the  music  of  the  older 
Italian  masters.  It  bears  the  traces  of  the  new  secular  style, 
which  was  becoming  the  favorite  style  even  in  church  music. 
His  "  Lamentations "  are  still  performed  at  Rome  during 
Passion  Week ;  his  "  Magnificat  in  D  "  has  been  revived  of 
late  years,  yet  it  is  not  a  remarkable  composition.  Durante 
was  an  industrious  composer ;  he  produced  a  great  number 
of  masses,  psalms,  hymns,  madrigals,  duets,  and  sonatas  for 
the  harpsichord.  He  lived  to  be  a  great  favorite  of  his  coun- 
trymen, while  Scarlatti,  in  his  old  age,  was  greeted  with  cold 
respect.  Durante  was  much  more  remarkable  as  a  teacher 
than  as  a  composer ;  he  trained  a  number  of  the  most  noted 
masters  of  the  eighteenth  century,  —  Vinci,  Jommelli,  Terra- 
dellas,  Traetta,  Piccinni,  Sacchini,  Paisiello,  and  others. 

As  a  composer  Durante  was  eclipsed  by  his  younger  con- 
temporary Leonardo  Leo,  who  was  for  a  time  the  delight  of 
all  Italy.  Leo  was  born  in  Naples  in  1694,  and  pursued  his 
musical  studies  under  Pitoni  in  Rome  and  Scarlatti  in  Naples. 
He  possessed  great  versatility  of  talent,  and  was  equally 
successful  in  church,  chamber,  and  opera  music.  His  light 
and  pleasing  style  soon  rendered  him  very  popular,  and  his 
operas  were  represented  all  over  Italy.  As  a  melodist  he  was 
excelled  by  no  one  of  his  day.  His  most  celebrated  piece  of 
sacred  music  is  the  "  Miserere  "  in  eight  parts. 

Antonio  Caldara,  born  in  1678,  a  pupil  of  Scarlatti,  was 
a  noted  composer  of  church  music.  Francesco  Feo  was  a 
prominent  contemporary  of  Durante  and  Leo.  He  founded  a 
vocal  school  at  Naples,-  and  was  distinguished  as  a  composer 
of  dramatic  and  sacred  music.  Gaetano  Greco,  a  pupil  of  Scar- 
latti, earned  a  high  reputation  as  a  contrapuntist  and  teacher ; 
he  counted  a  number  of  noted  masters  among  his  pupils. 

Niccolo  Porpora  is  the  best  known  of  these  older  masters 
of  Scarlatti's  school.  He  was  born  at  Naples  in  1686,  and 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    143 

was  placed  at  an  early  age  under  the  instruction  of  Scarlatti. 
His  career  as  a  dramatic  composer  began  at  Venice,  where  he 
found  a  formidable  rival  in  Hasse.  His  present  fame  rests 
principally  on  his  remarkable  talents  as  a  teacher  of  singing, 
yet  for  a  time  he  met  with  considerable  success  as  an  opera 
composer.  He  was  invited  to  England  to  take  charge  of  the 
opera,  which  had  been  set  on  foot  in  opposition  to  Handel, 
but  was  unable  to  withstand  the  genius  of  the  German  master. 
Porpora  spent  a  number  of  years  at  Vienna.  It  is  related  of 
him  that  while  he  was  poor,  and  struggling  for  recognition,  the 
emperor,  Charles  VI,  was  not  pleased  with  his  music,  which, 
he  said,  was  too  full  of  shakes  and  other  vocal  ornaments. 
Through  the  friendship  of  Hasse  the  imperial  dilettante  was 
prevailed  upon  to  listen  to  an  oratorio  of  Porpora's  composi- 
tion. Porpora,  having  received  a  hint  from  his  friend,  did  not 
introduce  a  single  shake  in  the  course  of  the  oratorio.  The 
emperor  was  much  surprised,  and  kept  continually  repeating, 
"  Why,  this  is  quite  a  different  thing ;  there  is  not  a  single 
shake !  "  At  last,  however,  the  concluding  fugue  began,  and 
the  emperor  observed  that  its  theme  set  out  with  four  trilled 
notes.  These,  of  course,  were  taken  up  in  succession  in  the 
answers  by  the  different  parts,  and  worked  upon  according  to 
the  rules  of  that  species  of  composition.  When  the  emperor, 
who  was  privileged  never  to  laugh,  heard  in  the  full  height 
of  the  fugue  this  deluge  of  shakes,  which  seemed  like  the 
music  of  a  set  of  crazy  paralytics,  he  could  no  longer  preserve 
his  gravity,  but  laughed  outright,  perhaps  for  the  first  time 
in  his  life.  This  pleasantry  was  the  beginning  of  Porpora's 
good  fortune.  In  George  Sand's  famous  novel,  "  Consuelo," 
both  Porpora  and  Haydn  figure  as  characters. 

Leonardo  Vinci,  a  fellow-pupil  of   Porpora,  was  born  at  Leonardo 
Naples  in    1690.    He   is  said   to  have   run  away  from   the        C1 
Conservatorio  dei  Poveri  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with 
Porpora,  who  seems  to  have  been  his  rival  in  after  life.    His 
career  as  a  dramatic  composer  began  early.    His  "Siroe"  was 


144  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

brought  out  at  Venice  in  1726,  and  was  successful  over  the 
"  Siface  "  of  his  rival  Porpora.  His  "  Didone  abbandonata" 
was  produced  at  Rome  in  the  following  year,  and  added 
greatly  to  his  reputation.  His  music  speedily  became  all  the 
rage;  at  London  his  "Elpidia"  was  repeated  fifteen  times 
in  one  season.  Yet  with  all  this  admiration  and  success  his 
compositions  have  long  since  been  forgotten.  For  a  time  he 
was  lauded  to  the  skies  by  musicians  as  well  as  dilettanti, 
but  Scheibe,  a  German  musical  critic  of  the  last  century, 
complains  of  Vinci  and  other  Italian  composers,  saying,  "  An 
Italian  lets  his  heroes  sing,  alia,  alia,  over  and  over  again,  and 
one  learns  at  the  end  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  that  he  wishes 
to  say,  alia  vendetta  !  " 

Pergoiesi  The  example  and  teachings  of  Durante,  Greco,  and  the 

other  earlier  Neapolitans  reached  their  full  value  in  the  works 
of  the  younger  generation  of  composers.  One  of  the  most  re- 
nowned masters  of  this  second  period  was  Giovanni  Battista 
Pergoiesi,  born  in  1710.  At  an  early  age  he  became  a  pupil 
in  the  Conservatorio  dei  Poveri,  where  he  produced  the  first 
specimens  of  his  genius.  His  first  opera  was  brought  out 
at  Naples,  but,  in  consequence  of  its  doubtful  success,  he 
turned  his  attention  to  the  comic  style,  which  had  come 
into  vogue  through  Niccolo  Logroscino,  the  founder  of  the 
opera  buffa. 

"Laserva  Pergoiesi  wrote  an  intermezzo  called  "  La  serva  padrona," 
padrona"  which  soon  became  celebrated  throughout  Europe.  At  Paris 
it  almost  caused  a  revolution  in  the  national  taste ;  Rous- 
seau asserted  that  henceforth  one  must  go  to  Naples  to 
learn  how  to  compose.  This  famous  piece  has  only  two  char- 
acters, the  third  person  introduced  being  merely  a  mute. 
They  are  an  old  bachelor  and  his  pretty  servant  maid.  She 
provokes  her  master  to  such  a  degree  by  her  willfulness  that 
he  declares  he  will  go  immediately  and  take  a  wife  to  be  rid 
of  her  impertinences.  "Very  well,"  says  the  maid,  "take 
me ! "  The  old  gentleman,  who  at  first  flies  out  at  this 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    145 

impertinent  proposition,  comes  round  in  the  course  of  the 
piece  to  the  damsel's  own  view  of  the  case,  and  gives  her 
his  hand  in  the  presence  of  the  only  witness,  the  pretended 
lover  of  the  maid,  —  the  lay  figure  of  the  play. 

Pergolesi,  on  the  strength  of  his  brilliant  reputation,  com-  Attempt  to 
posed  in  1735  a  serious  opera  for  Rome,  to  the  "  Olimpiade  "  ^us  opera 
of  Metastasio,  but  it  failed  to  interest  the  public,  while  they 
lavished  their  fickle  applause  on  the  "  Nerone  "  of  his  fellow- 
student  Duni.  Deeply  mortified  at  his  failure,  he  returned  at 
once  to  Naples  and  wrote  no  more  for  the  stage.  Henceforth 
he  devoted  his  pen  exclusively  to  the  composition  of  church 
music  ;  but  his  health  became  impaired,  and  he  fell  a  victim 
to  consumption,  brought  on,  it  is  held,  by  his  deep  melan- 
choly. He  died  at  the  premature  age  of  twenty-seven  years. 
No  sooner  was  it  known  that  he  was  dead  than  the  world 
glorified  him  by  the  performance  of  his  works  in  every  theater 
and  church.  His  "  Olimpiade  "  was  revived  at  Rome  with  the 
utmost  splendor.  Pergolesi's  last  work  was  his  celebrated 
"Stabat  Mater"  for  two  female  voices  and  accompaniment  of 
stringed  instruments.  This  work  has  held  a  place  in  the  mu- 
sical world  beyond  its  worth.  Pergolesi's  music  lacks  vigor 
and  grandeur  ;  it  is  soft  and  pleasing  to  the  ear,  and  possesses 
a  certain  sensuous  charm.  When  the  "  Stabat  Mater  "  is  sung 
by  five  singers  it  is  highly  enjoyable  on  account  of  its  religious 
expression  and  the  pure  sweetness  of  the  strains.  His  music 
exerted  a  strong  influence  on  his  contemporaries  and  succes- 
sors, as  his  best  works  presented  in  concentrated  form  what 
was  subsequently  embodied  in  hundreds  of  works.  His  operas 
and  intermezzi  number  fourteen ;  his  church  compositions, 
fifteen ;  his  cantatas,  five.  He  wrote  thirty  trios  for  violins 
and  violoncello. 

One  of  the  greatest  masters  of  the  Neapolitan  school  was  jommeiii 
Nicola  Jommeiii,  born  in  1714.    In  his  boyhood  he  studied 
under  Durante  and  others  at  Naples.    His  first  operas  were 
brought  out  there  with  applause,  and  led  to  his  call  to  Rome, 


146 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


where  he  won  a  great  triumph.  The  Romans  found  his  melo- 
dies so  noble  and  charming  that  they  called  him  the  greatest 
musical  genius  of  the  age,  and  were  so  enthusiastic  for  him 
that  on  one  occasion  they  carried  the  maestro  on  their  shoulders 
to  his  place  in  the  orchestra.  Jommelli's  melodies  courted 
the  ear  with  their  beauty ;  and  the  vocal  parts  of  his  operas 
were  treated  with  such  masterly  skill  that  the  admiration  of 
the  singers  as  well  as  the  public  was  unbounded.  He  improved 
the  orchestral  accompaniment,  and  paid  more  attention  to  the 
effects  of  forte  and  piano,  crescendo  and  diminuendo.  Subse- 
quently he  found  a  rival  in  the  young  Portuguese  composer 
Terradellas,  who  was  richly  endowed  with  genius.  During  the 
Carnival  at  Rome,  each  rival  produced  a  new  opera.  Terra- 
dellas won  the  victory,  while  Jommelli's  opera  was  hissed. 
In  commemoration  of  the  event  the  friends  of  the  success- 
ful maestro  had  a  medal  struck  off,  on  which  was  impressed  a 
representation  of  Jommelli  being  drawn  through  the  streets  as 
the  slave  of  Terradellas.  On  the  next  morning  Terradellas 
was  found  dead  in  the  Tiber,  yet  no  suspicion  was  ever  cast 
upon  Jommelli  in  connection  with  this  murder.  On  the  con- 
trary, he  was  honored  with  the  position  of  vice  chapelmaster 
at  St.  Peter's,  but  did  not  remain  much  longer  at  Rome.  He 
went  to  Stuttgart,  having  been  appointed  royal  chapelmaster 
and  composer  to  Charles  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  remained  in 
this  service  a  number  of  years, — from  1754  to  1765.  His 
stay  in  Germany  was  productive  of  the  best  results  to  his 
music.  He  composed  eighteen  operas,  which  were  received 
with  high  favor  and  appreciation.  His  harmony  improved 
greatly,  and  he  wrote  more  carefully  than  before  he  went  to 
Germany.  This  was  brought  about  through  the  influence  of 
the  more  dignified  and  serious  taste  of  the  Germans.  The 
orchestra  at  Stuttgart  won  the  foremost  place  in  Europe  under 
his  unequaled  direction.  On  his  return  to  Italy,  his  "  Demo- 
foonte  "  and  "  Ifigenia  in  Aulide,"  two  of  his  latest  and  best 
operas,  failed  to  interest  the  Italian  public ;  they  did  not 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    147 

appreciate  the  beauties  of  his  music.  He  was  so  much  affected 
by  this  that  his  health  was  undermined.  He  was  struck  with 
palsy,  from  which  he  never  recovered,  and  died  in  1774.  An 
explanation  of  his  failure  to  please  the  Italian  public  is  found 
in  the  following  extract  from  Burney  : 

Jommelli  had  acquired  considerable  knowledge  in  other  arts  than 
music.  His  poetry  was  full  of  taste.  Though  in  his  musical  works  he 
had  the  esteem  of  consummate  musicians,  they  sometimes  lost  him  that 
of  the  multitude.  He  found  the  theater  at  Naples,  and  indeed  almost  all 
the  theaters  of  Italy,  in  the  greatest  corruption  ;  where,  in  and  out  of  the 
orchestra,  all  is  noise  and  confusion.  A  learned  music  like  that  of  Jom- 
melli, full  of  harmony  and  contrivance,  which  requires  careful  execution 
and  the  utmost  stillness  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  audience,  could 
not  satisfy  the  frivolous  taste  of  the  Italians,  who  used  to  say  that  Gluck, 
Jommelli,  Hasse,  and  Bach  were  too  rough  and  German,  and  pleased 
them  less  than  the  songs  of  the  gondolieri,  and  airs  with  a  few  accom- 
paniments and  many  graces  and  florid  passages. 

Jommelli  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  the  musicians  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Mozart  said  of  him,  "  The  man  has  his 
specialty  in  which  he  excels ;  only  he  should  not  have  at- 
tempted to  compose  church  music  in  the  old  style,  but  should 
have  been  content  within  his  peculiar  sphere." 

Nicola  Piccinni,  born  in  1728,  was  a  pupil  of  Leo  and  Piccinni 
Durante.  He  in  turn  was  the  favorite  of  the  fickle  Italian 
public.  His  genius  was  displayed  at  the  best  advantage  in 
the  opera  buffa,  in  which  branch  he  surpassed  all  others  of 
his  time.  His  "  Cecchina,"  brought  out  first  at  Rome  in  1761, 
met  with  extraordinary  success.  It  was  a  standing  piece  at 
all  the  theaters  ;  it  was  performed  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and 
was  the  foundation  of  the  composer's  fame.  He  gave  a  new 
meaning  to  the  opera  buffa,  for  although  Logroscino  originated 
this  form,  the  credit  of  having  fully  developed  it  belongs  to 
Piccinni.  The  invention  of  the  opera  finale,  or  that  species  of 
concerted  music  terminating  each  act  of  an  opera,  in  which  a 
portion  of  the  business  of  the  piece  is  carried  on,  was  made  by 
Logroscino,  but  Piccinni  infused  more  life  into  the  dramatic 


1 48  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

action  of  the  finale  by  grouping  together  various  parts,  and 
by  frequent  changes  of  movement  and  measure  in  the  music. 
He  also  employed  the  air  and  duet  in  a  free  form ;  he 
often  left  out  the  da  capo,  so  that  the  first  slow  part  did 
not  recur  after  the  second  quicker  part  of  the  air  had  been 
sung.  Piccinni  was  called  to  Paris  by  the  anti-Gluck  party 
as  their  champion. 

Sacchini  Antonio  Maria  Gaspare  Sacchini  was  born  at  Naples  in 

1734.  Like  his  fellow-countryman  Piccinni,  he  became  the 
idol  of  the  Italian  opera  party  at  Paris.  He  had  gained  a 
reputation  previously,  and  was  already  famous  as  an  opera 
composer  at  Stuttgart  and  Munich,  and  in  Holland  and  Eng- 
land. In  opera  seria  (serious  opera)  he  was  more  successful 
than  Piccinni.  His  works  are  distinguished  by  their  fine 
taste  and  melodic  beauty,  and  he  produces  great  effects  by 
simple  means.  His  instrumental  accompaniments  were  supe- 
rior to  those  of  others  of  his  school ;  being  a  fine  violin  player, 
his  parts  for  stringed  instruments  are  especially  well  written. 
He  wrote  some  fifty  operas,  serious  and  comic,  oratorios, 
masses  and  other  church  music,  besides  a  number  of  trios 
and  quartets  for  stringed  instruments,  and  pieces  for  the 
harpsichord. 

Paisiello  Giovanni  Paisiello,  born  in  1741,  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 

brated composers  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  educated 
at  Naples  at  the  Conservatory  of  St.  Onofrio.  His  first  operas 
were  brought  out  at  Bologna,  and  subsequently  he  composed 
about  ninety  serious  and  comic  operas  for  different  Italian 
theaters.  He  was  director  of  music  at  St.  Petersburg  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  during  this  period  was  active  as  a  com- 
poser. His  name  and  works  became  universally  known,  and 
his  operas  are  almost  the  only  ones  of  the  Neapolitan  school 
of  the  eighteenth  century  which  are  performed  nowadays. 

Other  Neapolitan  masters  of  lesser  fame  than  these  whom 
I  have  mentioned  were  Sarri,  Davide  Perez,  Francesco  di 
Majo,  Paradies,  Cimarosa,  Zingarelli,  Cafaro,  and  others. 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    149 

The  progress  made  in  the  Italian  opera  during  the  first  Develop- 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  not  so  important  in  its  ment 
dramatic  as  its  musical  character.  First,  the  air  was  ennobled 
and  beautified  by  regulating  and  enlarging  the  rhetorical 
divisions  of  the  whole.  Previously  the  cadences  had  occurred 
too  often  in  the  course  of  the  piece,  and  were  out  of  all  pro- 
portion. The  air  was  henceforth  composed  in  three  general 
parts  or  divisions,  —  a  first  and  second  part  with  the  da  capo, 
besides  which  there  were  ritornelles,  or  instrumental  preludes 
and  interludes,  which  interrupted  the  continuity  of  the  vocal 
part,  and  prepared  the  hearers  for  the  new  entrance  of  the 
voice.  Secondly,  the  orchestral  accompaniment  acquired 
greater  motion  and  variety  in  the  rhythm,  and  the  art  of 
instrumentation  began  to  show  some  signs  of  its  modern 
characteristics.  In  the  ritornelles  and  interludes  of  the  airs 
and  recitatives  composers  had  begun  to  introduce  motives  and 
passages  for  the  wind  instruments,  but  this  innovation  met 
with  opposition  at  first.  The  chorus  was  the  most  neglected 
part  of  the  opera ;  if  it  was  not  omitted  altogether  from  the 
work,  it  held  a  very  insignificant  place.  The  air,  as  I  have 
previously  stated,  absorbed  the  interest  of  the  performers  and 
the  public ;  the  personages  of  the  drama  had  degenerated 
into  mere  singing  machines.  Mere  execution  and  tours  de 
force  were  expected  of  a  singer  rather  than  passion  and 
dramatic  fire.  Among  other  absurdities  common  at  that  Musical 
period  were  pieces  called  "  pasticcio,"  a  kind  of  musical  absurdl1 
patchwork,  made  up  of  all  sorts  of  favorite  airs  from  different 
composers.  One  of  these  incongruous  pieces,  called  "  Gris- 
elda,"  was  composed  of  airs  by  Porpora,  Vinci,  Bioni,  Caldara, 
Gasparini,  Orlandini,  Boniventi,  Sarri,  Porta,  Handel,  and 
others.  The  irregularity  of  construction,  inconsistency  of 
character,  and  want  of  poetical  beauty  which  distinguished 
even  the  most  noted  musical  drama  before  the  coming  of 
Metastasio  and  Zeno  stood  in  the  way  of  the  rapid  advance- 
ment of  the  opera.  Mythological  personages  still  walked  the 


150  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

boards  of  the  stage,  but  they  were  recognizable  only  by  name. 
All  true  development  of  character,  all  individual  traits  were 
entirely  wanting.  "Gods  and  devils,"  says  Arteaga,  "were 
banished  from  the  stage  as  soon  as  poets  discovered  the  art 
of  making  men  speak  with  dignity."  This  evil  state  of  things 
was  happily  satirized  by  Marcello,  the  celebrated  Venetian 
Marcello's  composer,  in  a  work  called  "  The  Theater  of  Fashion."  He 

"Theaterof  ,  ,    ,       ,    . 

Fashion"  professes  to  give  useful  advice  to  poets,  composers,  singers, 
managers,  and  all  connected  with  the  opera,  both  in  its  pro- 
duction and  its  representation.  The  author  begins  by  telling 
the  poet  that  there  is  no  occasion  for  his  reading,  or  having 
read,  the  classical  authors,  for  the  very  good  reason  that  the 
ancients  never  read  any  of  the  works  of  the  moderns.  He  will 
not  ask  any  questions  about  the  ability  of  the  performers,  but 
will  rather  inquire  whether  the  theater  is  provided  with  a 
good  bear,  a  good  lion,  a  good  nightingale,  good  thunder, 
lightning,  and  earthquakes.  The  incidents  of  the  piece 
should  consist  of  dungeons,  daggers,  poison,  boar  hunts,  mad- 
ness, etc.,  because  the  people  are  always  greatly  moved  by 
unexpected  things.  A  good  modern  poet  ought  to  know 
nothing  about  music,  because  the  ancients,  according  to 
Strabo,  Pliny,  and  others,  thought  this  knowledge  necessary. 
The  modern  composer  is  told  that  there  is  no  occasion  for 
his  being  master  of  the  principles  of  composition.  He  need 
not  know  anything  of  poetry  nor  give  himself  any  trouble 
about  the  meaning  of  the  words  or  even  the  quantities  of 
the  syllables.  He  will  serve  the  manager  on  very  low  terms, 
considering  the  thousands  of  crowns  that  the  singers  cost 
him  ;  he  will  therefore  content  himself  with  an  inferior  salary 
to  the  lowest  of  these,  provided  he  is  not  wronged  by  the 
bear,  the  attendants,  or  the  scene-shifters  being  put  above 
him.  The  singer  is  informed  that  there  is  no  occasion  for 
having  practised  the  solfeggio,  because  he  would  thus  be  in 
danger  of  acquiring  a  firm  voice,  just  intonation,  and  the 
power  of  singing  the  tune.  Nor  is  it  very  necessary  that  he 


of  Metas- 
tasio 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    151 

should  be  able  to  read  or  write,  know  how  to  pronounce  the 
words,  or  understand  their  meaning,  provided  he  can  run 
passages,  make  trills,  etc.  He  will  always  complain  of  his 
part,  saying  that  it  is  not  adapted  to  him,  that  the  airs  are 
not  in  style,  and  so  on. 

The  prima  donna  receives  ample  instructions  in  her  duties 
both  on  and  off  the  stage.  She  is  taught  how  to  make  engage- 
ments, to  screw  the  manager  up  to  exorbitant  terms,  etc. 
A  modern  manager  ought  not  to  have  a  knowledge  of  music, 
acting,  poetry,  painting,  or  anything  belonging  to  a  theater. 
The  author  goes  on  in  this  vein  at  ample  length ;  if  these 
satirical  counsels  were  more  deserved  in  his  day,  we  might 
find  them  somewhat  applicable  at  the  present  time. 

Metastasio  marked  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  opera,  influence 
He  is  the  only  poet  who  has  ever  won  a  great  name  by  de- 
voting himself  almost  exclusively  to  writing  for  the  musical 
drama.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  a  born  poet  for  music  ; 
his  verse  and  rhythm  are  wonderfully  smooth  and  elegant. 
"No  one  before  Metastasio,"  says  Arteaga,  "ever  felt  and 
understood  more  deeply  the  philosophy  of  love.  No  other 
possesses  in  so  high  a  degree  the  eloquence  of  the  heart,  or 
knows  better  how  to  awaken  the  fancies,  engage  the  interest, 
and  put  them  to  the  proof ;  to  mark  distinctly  the  several 
circumstances  that  occur  in  an  action,  and  to  combine  them ; 
to  detect  the  motives  which  are  most  immediately  effective, 
and  most  consistent  with  the  character  of  a  person.  .  .  .  But 
on  the  other  hand,  simply  to  preserve  the  custom  of  intro- 
ducing love  everywhere,  useless  scenes  are  inserted  here  and 
there,  which,  far  from  conducing  as  they  ought  to  the  princi- 
pal object,  and  preparing  for  the  catastrophe,  serve  only  to 
destroy  the  unity,  break  the  chain  of  connection,  and  injure  the 
energy  of  the  most  animated  situations."  Metastasio' s  opera  Defects  of 
texts  are  complained  of  as  being  too  much  alike ;  his  characters  t(!xt°pera 
are  not  marked  by  strong  individual  traits.  Nevertheless,  he 
exerted  a  great  influence  on  the  opera  of  the  eighteenth 


152  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

century.  His  texts  were  composed  over  and  over  again  by  all 
the  prominent  masters  of  Europe ;  through  his  genius  they 
were  led  to  higher  efforts  than  they  otherwise  would  have 
attempted,  and  such  illustrious  musicians  as  Pergolesi,  Vinci, 
Jommelli,  Hasse,  and  even  Handel,  may  be  called  the  pupils 
of  Metastasio,  for  they  were  warmed  by  his  fire,  and  per- 
fected their  dramatic  talents  by  means  of  his  works. 

The  brilliant  achievements  of  Italian  genius  in  music  in  the 
eighteenth  century  did  not  find  their  source  in  Naples  alone ; 
but  other  cities  like  Venice,  Rome,  and  Bologna  were  rich 
in  musical  composers  and  singers.  At  Venice  the  opera 
first  flourished  as  a  public  entertainment  under  Monteverde, 
Cavalli,  Cesti,  and  others.  Later  Venetian  masters  were 
Giovanni  Legrenzi,  fruitful  in  all  branches  of  musical  com- 
position and  highly  distinguished  as  an  excellent  teacher, 
Lotti,  Caldara,  Marcello,  Galuppi,  and  many  others  less 
remarkable. 

Lotti  Antonio  Lotti,  born  in  1667,  a  pupil  of  Legrenzi,  was  ap- 

pointed organist  and,  in  1736,  director  of  music  at  St.  Mark's. 
He  composed  seventeen  operas.  Although  he  was  successful 
in  dramatic  music,  he  was  greater  in  his  church  and  chamber 
music.  He  displayed  great  power  of  expression  and  remark- 
able skill  in  counterpoint ;  he  united  the  profundity  of  the 
older  masters  with  the  pleasing  grace  of  the  later.  In  the 
madrigal  he  is  called  another  Luca  Marenzio ;  in  his  church 
music,  a  worthy  descendant  of  Palestrina.  He  was  a  thorough 
master  of  vocal  style  and  an  excellent  teacher. 

Caldara  Antonio  Caldara,  another  pupil  of  Legrenzi,  was  born  at 

Venice  in  1678.  His  career  as  a  composer  began  at  Mantua ; 
at  the  end  of  a  four  years'  sojourn  in  that  city  he  went  to 
Vienna,  where  he  held  a  position  at  the  Imperial  Court  as 
associate  director  of  music.  Fux,  the  noted  Viennese  com- 
poser, exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  Caldara  as  a  harmonist. 
In  1738  Caldara  returned  to  Venice,  where  he  remained  the 
rest  of  his  life,  dying  in  1763.  Caldara's  charming  melodious 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    153 

style  rendered  him  a  universal  favorite,  yet  his  operas  did 
not  enjoy  a  lasting  reputation,  for  they  displayed  neither 
learning  nor  passion.  His  sacred  music  is  of  a  more  earnest 
character;  his  sixteen-part  "  Crucifixus  "  has  been  published 
recently,  and  is  held  in  high  esteem. 

Benedetto  Marcello,  whose  famous  satire  I  have  already  Marcello 
quoted,  is  a  noted  character  in  Italian  music.  He  was  of  noble 
birth,  and  held  several  important  offices  under  his  govern- 
ment. He  was  born  in  1686  and  died  in  1739.  In  music  he 
was  the  pupil  of  Gasparini  and  Lotti,  but  he  never  became 
more  than  a  cultivated  dilettante.  His  principal  work  as  a 
composer  was  the  setting  of  fifty  of  the  Psalms  to  music. 
They  are  written  in  simple  style,  generally  for  one  or  two  solo 
.voices.  Marcello  attempted  to  unite  ancient  simplicity  with 
modern  clearness  in  the  expression  of  individual  emotion. 
His  church  music  is  dull  enough  compared  either  with  the 
great  style  of  Palestrina  or  Gabrieli,  or  with  that  of  later 
masters  like  Bach  and  Handel,  but  it  deserves  some  recog- 
nition as  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  determined  attempts  to 
give  church  music  a  more  subjective,  individual  expression. 
On  no  other  grounds  can  we  explain  the  fact  that  this  dry 
music  of  the  fifty  Psalms  has  been  reprinted  again  and  again, 
and  can  be  found  in  bulky  volumes  in  all  our  principal  libraries. 

Of  all  the  Venetian  masters  Baldassare  Galuppi  (i  706— 1 785)  Galuppi 
is  the  best  representative  of  the  dramatic  style.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Lotti.  In  1762  he  was  appointed  director  of  music 
at  St.  Mark's.  Afterwards  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  where 
his  "  Did  one  abbandonata "  created  a  great  furore,  and  to 
London,  where  he  was  engaged  as  a  composer  for  the  rival 
opera  to  Handel's.  His  comic  operas  are  his  best,  and  had 
a  perceptible  influence  on  English  dramatic  music. 

Among  the  Roman  masters  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Steffani 
most  prominent  were   Pitoni,   Gasparini,   Baj,   and   Steffani. 
They  were  distinguished  chiefly  in  church  music.    The  most 
remarkable  of  these  composers  was  Agostino  Steffani,  who 


154 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Colonna 
and  Clari 


Bononcini 


was  born  in  1655.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Johann  Kerl  and  of 
Bernabei  at  Munich,  but  his  first  operas  were  brought  out  at 
the  court  of  Hanover.  Subsequently  he  was  honored  by  the 
Pope  with  the  office  of  foreign  minister,  and  made  an  abbe 
and  bishop.  Steffani's  excellence  was  displayed  best  in  his 
chamber  and  sacred  music,  his  so-called  chamber  duets  being 
justly  celebrated.  They  unite  elegant  and  flowing  melody  with 
contrapuntal  skill  and  learning,  and  were  highly  esteemed  by 
the  most  refined  musicians  and  dilettanti  of  his  age.  Handel 
was  influenced  by  this  master,  as  his  twenty-two  chamber 
duets  give  proof.  Steffani's  great  "Stabat  Mater,"  in  six  vo- 
cal parts  with  accompaniment,  is  a  work  of  high  merit.  It  shows 
in  every  measure  the  thorough  contrapuntist  and  vocal  master, 
and  is  full  of  religious  feeling. 

Florence,  the  cradle  of  the  opera,  produced  fewer  great 
masters  than  other  Italian  capitals  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
One  of  the  best  dramatic  composers,  however,  was  the  Flor- 
entine, Francesco  Conti,  who  was  also  a  distinguished  player 
on  the  theorba.  At  Palermo  was  born  the  Baron  Emanuele 
d'Astorga  in  1681,  who  became  a  noted  composer. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  Bologna  enjoyed  the  reputation 
of  such  great  masters  as  Colonna,  Clari,  and  Bononcini.  Gio- 
vanni Paolo  Colonna  was  the  founder  of  a  school  which 
attained  celebrity.  He  was  born  in  1640,  and  is  said  to  have 
studied  at  Rome  under  Carissimi.  His  numerous  composi- 
tions are  mainly  in  the  church  style.  Colonna  was  chiefly  cele- 
brated on  account  of  his  learning  and  talents  as  a  teacher, 
and  pupils  came  to  him  from  all  directions.  His  pupil  Gio- 
vanni Carlo  Maria  Clari  was  born  in  1669.  Clari's  first  opera 
was  brought  out  with  much  success  at  Bologna,  yet  he  was 
more  at  home  as  a  writer  of  church  and  chamber  music  than 
as  a  dramatic  composer.  His  "  De  profundis  "  has  been  per- 
formed in  modern  times. 

Giovanni  Bononcini  was  born  in  1672  at  Modena.  He  re- 
ceived his  first  musical  instruction  from  his  father,  Giovanni 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    155 

Maria  Bononcini.  He  first  appeared  as  a  violoncello  player 
and  composer  at  Vienna  and  Berlin,  and  his  reputation  soon 
spread  abroad.  In  1720  he  was  invited  to  England,  and 
arrived  at  London  almost  simultaneously  with  Handel.  Bonon- 
cini's  operas  became  very  popular,  and  the  intense  party 
feeling  which  was  aroused  on  his  and  Handel's  account  forms 
a  chapter  in  musical  history.  The  party  spirit  ran  so  high 
that  it  became  political ;  it  is  said  that  Handel's  cause  was 
espoused  by  the  Tories  and  Bononcini's  by  the  Whigs.  For 
a  time  Bononcini  won  the  victory.  John  Byrom  ridicules  this 
dispute  in  the  well-known  lines  : 

Some  say,  compar'd  to  Bononcini, 
That  Mynheer  Handel 's  but  a  ninny  ; 
Others  aver  that  he  to  Handel 
Is  scarcely  fit  to  hold  a  candle. 
Strange  all  this  difference  should  be 
'Twixt  Tweedledum  and  Tweedledee. 

But  posterity  has  awarded  immortal  fame  to  the  one  and  a 
mere  remembrance  to  the  other.  Bononcini's  most  popular 
operas  were  "Griselda,"  "Astarto,"  "  Crispo,"  and  "Asty- 
anax."  Not  one  of  them  has  lived  to  the  present  day,  which 
is  also  true,  however,  of  Handel's  forty  operas. 

Italian  opera  in  the  eighteenth  century  found  no  richer  Italian 
field  of  conquest  than  Germany,  at  Dresden,  Munich,  Stutt- 
gart,  Berlin,  and  other  courts.  Vienna,  in  particular,  grew  to 
be  veritably  an  Italian  colony.  This  influence  of  Italian  music 
on  the  native  musicians  of  Germany  was  shown  in  the  works 
of  masters  like  Fux,  Graun,  Kerl,  and  Hasse. 

Johann  Joseph  Fux  was  royal  chapelmaster  at  Vienna  for 
the  first  forty  years  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  composed  a 
number  of  operas  in  the  Italian  style,  which  were  richer  in  har- 
mony than  the  most  of  that  school,  but  he  wrote  more  church 
music  than  secular  music.  As  a  learned  contrapuntist  his  teach- 
ings have  lasted  to  the  present  day.  His  "Gradus  ad  Parnas- 
sum  "  has  served  as  a  standard  for  many  eminent  musicians. 


156  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Graun  Karl  Heinrich  Graun  was  born  in  1701.  In  his  youth  he 

was  an  ardent  admirer  of  the  Italian  opera,  and  became  a 
singer  on  the  stage.  In  the  year  1740  he  was  chosen  the 
royal  director  of  music  by  Frederick  the  Great,  an  office  which 
he  held  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  composed  thirty-six 
operas  and  a  large  collection  of  church  music.  His  well-known 
oratorio,  "The  Death  of  Jesus  "  (Der  Tod  Jesu),  is  still  sung 
at  Berlin  and  other  places,  although  it  no  longer  holds  the 
place  it  once  did  in  Germany. 

Hasse  The  most  celebrated  German  master  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 

tury, who  dedicated  himself  heart  and  soul  to  the  Italian  style, 
was  Johann  Adolph  Hasse,  born  at  Hamburg  in  1699.  He 
first  appeared  as  a  singer  in  Reiser's  opera  at  Hamburg,  and 
afterwards  at  the  court  of  Brunswick,  where  his  first  opera, 
"Antigonus,"  was  brought  out  when  he  was  only  eighteen 
years  old.  In  1724  he  went  to  Naples  to  study  under  Por- 
pora,  but  fortunately  came  under  the  notice  of  Scarlatti,  who 
was  so  attracted  by  Hasse's  brilliant  performance  on  the 
harpsichord  that  he  accepted  him  as  his  pupil,  and  treated 
him  with  the  affection  of  a  parent.  It  was  not  long  before  his 
talents  found  an  opportunity  to  be  made  known  to  the  Neapol- 
itan public.  His  "Sesostrato"  was  performed  there  in  1726, 
and  it  so  completely  established  his  reputation  that  he  was 
henceforth  in  universal  demand,  both  as  director  and  com- 
poser. The  Italians  named  him  "il  caro  Sassone."  In  the 
following  year  he  went  to  Venice,  where  he  was  appointed 
chapelmaster,  and  there  he  met  the  celebrated  singer,  Faus- 
tina, whom  he  afterwards  married.  In  1730  he  was  invited 
to  Dresden,  as  composer  and  chapelmaster  to  the  court.  The 
king  placed  at  his  command  full  power  and  ample  resources 
to  put  the  opera  on  the  most  complete  footing,  and  gave  him 
a  salary  of  twelve  thousand  dollars  per  year  for  himself  and 
his  wife,  Faustina.  In  this  honored  position  he  remained  for 
many  years,  and  the  Dresden  opera  became  very  famous.  He 
was  invited  to  take  the  direction  of  the  opera  in  London  in 


ITALIAN  COMPOSERS  OF  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY    157 

opposition  to  Handel.  On  the  reception  of  this  invitation  his 
question  was,  "Is  Handel  dead?"  When  they  answered  "No," 
he  would  not  stir  a  foot,  declaring  that  where  Handel  was 
there  was  no  room  for  any  one  else  in  the  same  profession. 

Hasse  and  Graun  were  lauded  to  the  skies  by  their  contem-  Contempo- 
poraries,  while  Bach  was  obscure  and  unappreciated  except  as  oTiiasse56 
an  organist  and  teacher,  and  Handel  had  too  many  enemies  and  Graun 
to  overcome.  "  Hasse  and  Graun,"  says  Scheibe  in  his  "  Kriti- 
scher  Musicus,"  "are  the  excellent  masters  who  in  their  time 
have  succeeded  in  covering  themselves  and  their  country  with 
glory,  for  it  may  be  said  that  with  them  a  new  period  has 
begun.  ...  I  have  listened  at  various  places  to  church  music 
by  Handel,  Hasse,  and  Graun,  and  invariably  have  found  that 
the  last-named  composer  has  always  produced  the  greatest 
and  most  general  impression."  But  in  the  opera  Scheibe  finds 
that  Hasse  is  preeminent.  Time  soon  confuted  the  critic. 
Hasse  was  a  superior  singer,  and  understood  how  to  write  for 
the  voice  as  few  others  did.  "He  had  better  taste,"  says 
von  Dommer,  "than  most  Italians  of  his  time,  and  possessed 
a  greater  dramatic  power.  Through  him  the  Italian  opera  of 
the  school  of  Scarlatti,  when  considered  within  its  own  limits, 
reached  its  highest  point  of  excellence.  For  Hasse  had  become 
an  Italian  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  while  Handel  had  not 
studied  any  less  attentively  but  still  remained  a  German  in 
spirit.  The  Italian  opera  as  a  whole  came  to  no  completion 
under  Handel,  although  it  acquired  a  higher  dramatic  musical 
expression,  with  resources  hitherto  unknown,  and  contained  the 
germs  of  a  new  form  of  development  which  ultimately  came 
to  light  in  the  grand  oratorios  of  that  master." 

The  national  German  opera  at  Hamburg,  which  will  come 
under  our  notice  in  a  succeeding  chapter,  did  not  attain  the 
result  to  which  its  supporters  aspired  ;  for  the  Italian  opera  in 
Germany,  with  Hasse  at  its  head,  stood  in  the  way  of  its  endur- 
ing success.  It  was  not  until  the  advent  of  Gluck  and  Mozart 
that  Germany  could  point  with  pride  to  its  national  opera. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

ITALIAN  MASTERS  OF  SINGING 

The  Italian  school  of  singing  is  universally  acknowledged 
and  admired  as  the  only  great  vocal  system.  This  unrivaled 
supremacy  may  be  accounted  for  naturally,  as  the  result  of  a 
musical  language,  a  beautiful  climate,  and  a  musical  tempera- 
ment which  prompts  the  Italians  to  sing  as  spontaneously  as 
the  birds.  Yet  this  natural  love  of  singing  would  have  signi- 
fied but  little  if  it  had  not  been  guided  into  the  right  chan- 
nel by  fortuitous  events.  We  trace  the  source  of  this  school 
of  artistic  singing  back  to  the  sixteenth  century,  the  age  of 
a  cappella  music.  It  was  not,  however,  before  the  advent  of  solo 
singing,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  as  manifested  in  the  reci- 
tative and  aria,  that  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  Italian 
vocalization  came  to  light.  With  the  advancement  of  the 
opera  arose  remarkable  masters  of  singing  like  Pistocchi, 
Bernacchi,  and  Porpora,  and  great  singers  like  Senesino, 
Faustina,  and  Farinelli. 

The  development  of  vocal  composition  and  the  art  of  vocal- 
ization went  on  hand  in  hand.  In  a  preceding  chapter  I  stated 
that  many  of  the  most  celebrated  Flemish  masters  were 
singers  in  the  Papal  Choir  at  Rome,  and  that  with  few  excep- 
tions the  members  of  that  body  were  the  foremost  singers  as 
well  as  the  foremost  composers  of  their  time.  Subsequently, 
the  founders  of  the  opera  and  cantata  —  Caccini,  Carissimi, 
Scarlatti,  and  others  —  were  singers  and  teachers  of  singing 
as  well  as  composers. 

In  the  church  music  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  soprano  and 
contralto  parts  were  not  supplied  by  women,  who  were 
debarred  from  this  service  by  ecclesiastical  law.  In  the  age 

158 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SINGING  159 

of  the  Flemish  school  these  parts  were  taken  by  falsetto 
singers,  the  best  of  whom  came  from  Spain.  This  combina- 
tion of  voices  accounts  for  the  low  range  of  the  soprano  and 
contralto  parts  in  much  of  the  a  cappella  music  previous  to 
Palestrina.  In  his  day  boy  singers  became  common  and  soon 
replaced  the  falsetto  singers,  who  were  not  so  competent  to 
sing  high  notes.  They  in  turn  were  superseded  in  a  degree 
by  male  soprano  and  contralto  singers  (castrati),  none  of 
whom,  however,  entered  the  Papal  Choir  before  1625.  This 
class  of  singers  became  numerous,  and  the  greatest  virtuosi 
of  the  eighteenth  century  are  counted  among  their  number. 
It  is  related  of  Baldassare  Ferri  of  Perugia  (1610-1680),  a 
soprano  singer,  that  with  his  wonderfully  trained  voice  he 
could  execute  a  chain  of  trills  running  through  two  octaves 
of  the  chromatic  scale,  ascending  and  descending,  all  in  one 
breath,  and  with  absolute  purity  of  intonation.  This  difficult 
feat  appears  entirely  credible  when  we  read  of  the  severe 
studies  pursued  by  students  of  singing  at  that  time.  Bon- 
tempi,  the  Italian  musical  historian,  gives  an  account  of  the 
daily  exercises  to  which  the  scholars  of  the  Papal  Choir  were  Training  of 
subjected  under  Mazzocchi  in  1636,  and  which,  if  faithfully 
followed  out,  ought  certainly  either  to  have  made  or  unmade 
singers.  He  says  : 

The  pupils  had  to  give  one  hour  daily  to  the  practice  of  difficult  vocal 
passages,  in  order  to  acquire  easy  execution  ;  another  hour  to  the  study 
of  the  trill  ;  a  third  to  pure  intonation, — all  in  the  presence  of  the  master, 
and  standing  before  a  mirror  that  they  might  observe  the  position  of 
the  mouth  and  avoid  all  grimaces  while  singing.  .  .  .  Two  hours  more 
were  devoted  to  the  study  of  expression  and  taste.  In  the  afternoon 
half  an  hour  was  devoted  to  studying  the  theory  of  sound  ;  another  half 
hour  to  counterpoint ;  an  hour  to  hearing  the  rules  of  composition ; 
another  to  the  study  of  literature,  and  the  rest  of  -the  day  to  playing  the 
clavichord,  or  to  the  composition  of  some  psalm,  motet,  or  other  style  of 
piece,  according  to  the  pupil's  own  inclination.  These  were  the  ordi- 
nary exercises  of  the  day.  Besides,  occasionally  they  sang  at  church, 
or  went  thither  to  hear  the  work  of  some  celebrated  master.  On  their 
pleasure  walks  they  often  went  to  the  Porta  Angelica  of  Monte  Maria, 


i6o 


THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Caccini's 
"  Nuove 
musiche  " 


Pistocchi 


to  sing  there,  and  listen  to  the  echo  of  their  voices,  that  they  might  in 
this  way  judge  of  their  singing  and  detect  their  faults.  And  when  they 
returned  to  their  school,  they  spent  the  rest  of  the  evening  in  the  improve- 
ment of  certain  points,  and  in  giving  to  their  masters  an  account  of  what 
they  had  seen  and  done. 

The  first  regular  treatise  on  the  art  of  singing  was  published 
by  Caccini  in  the  year  1601,  at  Florence,  in  the  preface  of 
his  "  Nuove  musiche."  He  treats  of  the  art  of  perfect  into- 
nation, —  how  to  swell  and  diminish  the  tone  tastefully  and 
expressively.  He  gives  directions  how  to  execute  the  trill  — 
which  in  his  day  consisted  of  the  rapid  reiteration  of  the 
same  tone,  like  the  modern  tremolo — as  well  as  the  gruppo, 
or  modern  shake.  He  also  declares  that  extended  roulades 
and  florid  passages  are  by  no  means  important  to  a  good  style 
of  singing,  but  are  oftentimes  intended  merely  to  please  the 
ear ;  and  that  they  should  be  introduced  only  in  the  least  pas- 
sionate places,  and  in  the  final  cadences  of  the  piece ;  always 
on  the  long  syllables  and  never  on  the  short  ones.  This  advice 
did  not  much  please  his  contemporaries,  and  certainly  was  not 
strictly  followed  by  his  successors. 

Caccini's  fame  and  system  spread  over  Italy.  He  is  accepted 
as  the  founder  of  the  so-called  dramatic  style  of  singing  in 
distinction  from  the  chamber  style,  which  was  introduced  by 
Carissimi.  The  dramatic  style  of  singing  was  further  advanced 
in  the  school  of  Scarlatti,  Leo,  and  Porpora,  and  the  later 
Neapolitans.  Chamber  singing  was  cultivated  at  Bologna 
under  Pistocchi,  Bernacchi,  and  others.  The  greatest  singers 
of  the  eighteenth  century  —  Senesino,  Carestini,  Cuzzoni, 
and  others  —  combined  these  two  styles  and  carried  the  art 
of  singing  to  the  highest  perfection.  The  host  of  singers, 
performers,  and  composers  in  Italy  during  this  epoch  was 
unprecedented. 

The  vocal  school  of  Francesco  Antonio  Pistocchi,  founded 
at  Bologna  in  1700,  taught  the  method  which  has  remained 
as  the  foundation  of  all  good  singing  even  to  the  present  day. 


ITALIAN  MASTERS  OF  SINGING  161 

All  the  arts  of  practical  singing  were  systematized.  Particular 
attention  was  paid  to  the  quality  of  tone,  and  correctness  and 
beauty  of  style  were  demanded  as  essential  conditions  of 
the  art  of  musical  delivery.  Pistocchi  possessed  the  secret  of 
training  the  voices  of  his  pupils  according  to  the  peculiar 
nature  and  capabilities  of  each  one.  He  was  a  thoroughly  edu- 
cated musician,  and  an  excellent  soprano  singer.  His  most 
celebrated  pupils  were  Bernacchi,  Antonio  Pasi,  Minelli,  Fabri, 
Carlani,  and  Faenza. 

Antonio  Bernacchi  followed  in  the  path  laid  out  by  his  Bernacchi 
master,  and  was  even  more  fortunate  in  the  number  of  remark- 
able singers  whom  he  trained.  He  had  at  the  outset  only  a 
feeble  voice,  but  he  developed  it  so  wonderfully  under  the 
direction  of  his  teacher  that  he  became  one  of  the  best  singers 
of  his  day,  and  was  pronounced  to  be  the  king  of  singers  by 
Handel  and  Graun.  He  was  connected  with  Handel's  opera 
in  London  for  a  long  time.  Among  his  many  direct  pupils 
were  Mancini,  Amadori,  Guarducci,  and  Anton  Raaff,  the 
German  tenor  for  whom  Mozart  wrote  his  "  Idomeneo."  The 
influence  of  Bernacchi's  teaching  extended  beyond  his  direct 
pupils,  for  the  greatest  singers,  Senesino,  Carestini,  and 
Farinelli,  adopted  his  style  to  a  great  extent. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  Italian  singing  The  corn- 
attained  its  greatest  excellence.    "The  sway  which  a  flexible  Pi°s€^tfeti1 
throat   exercised  over  the   public  was  fabulous  ;  the  happy  virtuoso 
possessor  of  such  a  voice  returned  home  from  his  triumphal 
travels  with  his  golden  spoils.    Caffarelli  was  so  rich  that  he 
actually  bought  a  dukedom,  but  continued  to  the  last  to  get 
well  paid  for  his  singing."    Doni  scolds  about  these  singers, 
saying,  "  They  get  money  eagerly  in  order  to  revel  and  gor- 
mandize to  their  hearts'  content ;  they  hold  themselves  in 
such  high  honor  that  everybody  else  is  of  no  importance. 
Real  scholars  are  laughed  at  by  them,  while  they  imagine 
that  they  possess  all  the  musical  knowledge  worth  having.    I 
have  never  seen  such  a  perverse  and  peevish  kind  of  humanity 


162 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


as  this."  The  public  forgot  everything  in  its  eager  desire  to 
hear  these  wonderful  voices.  Tenors  and  basses  disappeared 
entirely  from  the  opera.  The  only  music  of  the  opera  which 
aroused  any  real  interest  were  the  solos  which  gave  the  singer 
full  opportunity  to  display  his  voice  and  execution.  In  the 
long  da  capo  arias  it  was  the  custom  of  the  singers  to  intro- 
duce new  passages  and  adornments  as  often  as  the  principal 
motives  were  repeated.  The  composer  had  become  the  slave 
of  the  virtuoso,  and  even  the  manly,  nay  heroic,  struggles  of 
Handel,  carried  on  for  years  against  the  cabal  of  Italian 
singers,  were  for  a  time  unavailing. 

Senesino  Among  this  number  was  Francesco  Bernardi,  commonly 

called  Senesino,  born  at  Siena  in  1680.  He  was  engaged  by 
Handel  in  1720,  and  sang  in  London  at  the  "  Hay  market " 
until  the  musical  quarrels  broke  out,  when  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  hostile  company  set  up  in  opposition  to  Handel. 
Senesino  is  said  to  have  had  "  a  powerful,  clear,  equal,  and 
sweet  contralto  voice,  with  a  perfect  intonation  and  an  ex- 
cellent shake.  His  manner  of  singing  was  masterly,  and  his 
elocution  unrivaled." 

Carestini,  also  called  Cusanino,  succeeded  Senesino  in 
Handel's  opera  in  1733.  It  was  said  by  judges  in  his  day 
that  those  who  had  not  heard  Carestini  were  ignorant  of  the 
perfect  style  of  singing.  He  had  a  remarkable  voice,  which 
changed  from  a  strong  clear  soprano  to  a  beautiful  sonorous 
contralto  with  a  range  from  D  to  G,  and  he  controlled  it  with 
wonderful  ease  and  flexibility.  His  highly  impressive  dramatic 
representations  were  enhanced  by  his  majestic  figure. 

Caffarelli  Caffarelli,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  singers  of  the  Neapol- 

itan school,  was  born  in  1703.  He  received  instruction  from 
Porpora,  who  is  said  to  have  taught  him  in  the  following  ex- 
traordinary manner  :  for  a  period  of  five  years  he  gave  him 
nothing  to  practise  but  scales  and  exercises,  all  of  which 
he  wrote  down  for  his  pupil  on  a  single  sheet  of  paper. 
In  the  sixth  year  he  proceeded  to  give  him  instructions  in 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SINGING  163 

articulation,  pronunciation,  and  declamation.  Caffarelli  sub- 
mitted to  this  treatment  without  a  murmur,  though  even  at 
the  end  of  six  years  he  imagined  he  had  got  a  very  little  way 
beyond  the  mere  rudiments  of  the  art.  But  to  his  great  aston- 
ishment his  master  one  day  addressed  him  :  "  Young  man,  you 
may  now  leave  me.  You  have  nothing  more  to  learn  from  me. 
You  are  the  greatest  singer  in  the  world."  This  story  has 
often  been  repeated,  but  probably  contains  only  a  grain  of 
truth,  for  had  Porpora  subjected  Caffarelli  to  such  a  strict 
and  pedantic  drill  as  this,  neither  master  nor  pupil  could  ever 
have  gained  his  present  fame.  Caffarelli  was  looked  upon  as 
Farinelli's  rival,  and  some  critics  considered  him  the  greater 
singer  of  the  two  ;  but  he  never  enjoyed  such  universal  popu- 
larity as  Farinelli. 

Vittoria  Tesi,  of  the  school  of  Bernacchi,  was  a  contralto  Vittoria 
singer  of  remarkable  powers.  The  extraordinary  compass  of 
her  voice  enabled  her  to  sing  with  perfect  ease  the  bass  airs 
in  the  opera,  and  at  Dresden  she  was  often  called  upon  to 
take  this  part,  as  there  was  a  great  scarcity  at  that  time  of 
bass  and  tenor  voices.  She  had  a  grand  and  majestic  style, 
and  great  powers  of  declamation. 

Faustina  Bordoni,  born  at  Venice  in  1700,  was  the  greatest  Faustina 
woman  singer  of  the  eighteenth  century.  She  was  trained  in  Bordoni 
singing  by  Gasparini,  and  made  her  first  public  appearance 
in  the  opera  at  Venice  in  1716,  but  afterward  became  the 
wife  of  Hasse,  and  for  many  years  was  the  chief  ornament  of 
the  opera  at  Dresden.  Faustina  was  remarkable  for  her  per- 
sonal charms  as  well  as  for  her  acting  and  singing.  She  had 
a  mezzo-soprano  voice  that  was  less  clear  than  penetrating ; 
her  manner  of  singing  was  expressive  and  brilliant ;  her  exe- 
cution, finished.  She  had  a  fluent  tongue  for  pronouncing 
words  rapidly  and  distinctly,  and  a  flexible  throat  for  passages, 
with  so  beautiful  and  quick  a  trill  that  she  could  put  it  in 
motion  easily  at  any  moment.  In  rapid  skips  she  could  rival 
any  instrument,  and  possessed  peculiar  skill  in  executing  swift 


1 64  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

reiterations  of  the  same  note,  or  tremolo.  She  sang  adagios 
with  great  passion  and  expression,  had  a  very  happy  memory, 
and  her  powers  of  mimicry  and  action  were  wonderful.  She 
succeeded  equally  well  in  serious,  amorous,  and  tender  parts. 
Her  only  successful  rival  among  her  own  sex  was  Cuzzoni, 
who,  however,  was  inferior  as  an  actress. 

Francesca  Francesca  Cuzzoni,  a  native  of  Parma,  began  her  career  at 
Venice,  where  she  appeared  in  the  opera  with  her  rival, 
Faustina.  She  went  to  England  in  1723,  and  was  held  in 
high  favor  there  for  a  number  of  years,  until  her  return  to 
her  native  land.  While  Cuzzoni  and  Faustina  were  in  London 
together  the  spirit  of  rivalry  and  jealousy  took  possession  of 
them,  and  each  found  partisans  among  the  ladies  of  fashion. 
It  is  told  by  Horace  Walpole  that  his  mother,  Lady  Walpole, 
had  them  at  her  house  to  sing  in  a  concert  at  which  an  assem- 
blage of  the  best  people  of  the  kingdom  was  present.  Find- 
ing it  impossible  to  prevail  on  the  one  to  sing  while  the  other 
was  present,  she  took  Faustina  to  a  remote  part  of  the  house, 
under  the  pretext  of  showing  her  some  curious  china,  during 
which  time  the  company  obtained  a  song  from  Cuzzoni,  who 
supposed  her  rival  had  quitted  the  field.  A  similar  device 
was  practised  in  order  to  get  Cuzzoni  out  of  the  room  while 
Faustina  performed.  The  party  feeling  in  regard  to  these 
rivals  soon  became  extravagant  and  furious,  and  the  fashion- 
able world  was  convulsed  by  their  feuds.  The  mutual  jealousy 
of  the  two  singers  was  intensified  to  such  a  degree  by  this 
foolish  partisanship  that  on  one  occasion,  when  they  happened 
to  meet  in  public,  they  actually  came  to  blows  before  the 
spectators.  It  is  no  wonder  that,  under  such  circumstances, 
the  directors  of  the  opera  found  their  interests  in  jeopardy, 
and  so  they  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  the  nuisance  by  taking 
advantage  of  an  oath  which  Cuzzoni  had  sworn  to  one  of  her 
noble  partisans,  Lady  Pembroke,  that  she  would  never  take  a 
lower  salary  than  her  rival,  Faustina.  The  time  for  a  new  con- 
tract was  at  hand,  and,  as  the  directors  offered  her  a  guinea 


ITALIAN   MASTERS  OF  SINGING  165 

less  than  they  offered  Faustina,  Cuzzoni,  bound  by  her  oath, 
was  obliged  to  refuse  the  engagement,  and  soon  left  the 
country.  After  a  life  of  various  vicissitudes  she  died,  poor 
and  neglected,  at  Bologna  in  1770. 

The  greatest  singer  of  all  the  remarkable  virtuosi  of  the  FarinelH 
eighteenth  century  was  Carlo  Broschi,  commonly  called  Fari- 
nelli.  He  was  born  at  Andria  in  Naples  in  1705,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Porpora,  who  bestowed  the  utmost  care  on  his  edu- 
cation. At  the  early  age  of  seventeen  he  accompanied  his 
teacher  to  Rome  to  make  his  debut  in  opera,  and  on  this 
occasion  he  performed  the  celebrated  vocal  feat  which  gave 
him  great  notoriety.  In  an  air  with  obligato  trumpet  accom- 
paniment, Farinelli  held  out  a  note  with  the  trumpeter  so  long 
that  the  player  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  contest,  while 
Farinelli,  with  apparent  ease  and  with  a  smile  on  his  face  as  if 
he  had  only  been  sporting  with  his  rival,  not  only  continued  to 
hold,  swell,  and  shake  the  same  note,  but  at  last,  in  the  same 
breath,  introduced  a  series  of  rapid  and  difficult  runs  and  pas- 
sages, when  his  voice  was  finally  lost  in  the  storm  of  applause. 
Farinelli  possessed  a  wonderful  voice  of  an  extraordinary  com- 
pass, which  in  later  years  grew  deeper  without  losing  the  power 
of  reaching  the  highest  notes.  Farinelli  stayed  in  England  a 
few  years,  and  was  engaged  by  the  party  of  noblemen  who 
were  carrying  on  the  opera  in  opposition  to  Handel.  On  leav- 
ing that  country  he  went  to  Madrid,  in  response  to  an  invi-  Invitation 
tation  from  the  queen  of  Spain.  The  king,  Philip  V,  was  i 
suffering  under  great  dejection  of  mind.  He  was  an  ardent 
lover  of  music,  and  it  was  thought  that  this  art  might  be  made 
to  serve  as  an  alleviation,  if  not  a  cure,  of  his  infirmity.  With 
this  in  view  the  greatest  singer  of  the  age  was  called  in  as  his 
physician.  The  experiment  succeeded  far  beyond  all  expecta- 
tions. The  king  was  so  much  pleased  with  Farinelli  that  he 
granted  all  his  wishes,  and  the  singer  used  his  influence  to 
have  him  take  medical  advice,  which  previously  he  had  re- 
fused ;  it  was  not  long  before  the  king  was  restored  to  health. 


1 66 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


His  pru- 
dence and 
modesty 


Farinelli  was  taken  into  the  service  of  the  court  at  a  high  salary, 
and  was  not  permitted  to  sing  any  more  in  public.  During  the 
first  ten  years  of  his  residence  at  court  he  sang  every  night 
to  the  king  the  same  four  airs,  which,  if  considered  in  the 
light  of  medicine,  must  have  been  extremely  hard  to  take  in 
such  repeated  doses,  and  would  in  ordinary  cases  be  more  likely 
to  kill  than  to  cure  the  musical  patient.  Farinelli  grew  into 
such  favor  that  the  king  conferred  high  honors  on  him,  and  he 
was  regarded  as  his  prime  minister.  But  in  holding  this  ele- 
vated position,  he  behaved  himself  with  so  much  modesty  and 
prudence  that  he  gained  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the 
Spanish  nobility.  It  is  related  of  him  that  one  day,  as  he 
was  going  to  the  king's  closet,  he  overheard  an  old  officer  of 
the  guard  curse  him,  and  say  to  another,  "  Honors  can  be 
heaped  on  such  scoundrels  as  this,  while  a  poor  soldier  like 
myself,  after  thirty  years'  service,  remains  unnoticed."  Fari- 
nelli, without  seeming  to  hear  this  reproach,  took  occasion  to 
remind  the  king  that  he  had  neglected  an  old  servant,  and 
procured  a  regiment  for  the  man  who  had  spoken  of  him  so 
harshly.  In  passing  out  after  leaving  the  king  he  gave  the 
officer  his  commission,  telling  him  that  he  had  heard  him  com- 
plain of  having  served  thirty  years  without  promotion.  "  But," 
he  added,  "  you  did  wrong  to  accuse  the  king  of  neglecting  to 
reward  your  zeal." 

After  a  service  at  the  Spanish  court  of  four  and  twenty 
years,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VI,  Philip's  successor,  Fari- 
nelli was  obliged  to  leave  Spain,  for  the  new  king  hated  music 
and  did  not  appreciate  the  character  or  talents  of  the  man. 
He  retired  to  Bologna  on  a  pension,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  The  extraordinary  events  of  his  career 
have  formed  the  subject  of  several  plays  and  operas. 

Farinelli  was  one  of  the  greatest  singers  that  ever  lived, 
not  only  in  regard  to  wonderful  range,  power,  and  flexibility 
of  his  voice,  —  which  enabled  him  to  sing  the  most  difficult 
passages  with  perfect  ease  and  clearness,  so  that  the  composers 


ITALIAN  MASTERS  OF  SINGING  167 

of  that  day  were  literally  unable  to  invent  difficulties  for  him, 
—  but  more  particularly  in  his  rare  power  of  moving  the  feel- 
ings of  his  hearers.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that  some  of  the 
music  of  the  present  century  demands  of  the  singer  greater 
depth  of  feeling  and  more  execution  than  the  most  difficult 
roulades  and  passages  which  were  composed  for  Farinelli ; 
yet  in  his  perfect  intonation,  noble  style,  and  power  of  artistic 
expression,  Farinelli  has  never  found  a  superior.  Such  were 
the  singers  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


First  per- 
formances 
of  opera  in 
Paris 


Independ- 
ent develop- 
ment of 
opera  in 
France 


OPERA  IN  FRANCE 

In  France,  as  in  other  countries,  mysteries  and  masques 
were  common  for  a  long  time  previous  to  the  establishment  of 
the  opera.  Italian  dramatic  music  was  first  introduced  into 
France  by  Rinuccini,  who  went  to  that  country  in  the  suite 
of  Maria  de'  Medici,  on  the  occasion  of  her  marriage  with 
Henry  IV.  But  the  first  regular  opera  performed  in  Paris 
was  by  an  Italian  company,  brought  to  France  in  1645  by 
Cardinal  Mazarin.  A  few  years  later  the  "  Euridice  "  of  Peri 
was  performed,  and  it  was  not  long  after  this  that  the  French 
began  to  do  something  themselves  in  this  branch  of  music, 
independently  of  Italy,  and  to  realize  the  dream  of  a  national 
opera.  The  earliest  attempt  was  made  by  Pierre  Perrin  and 
Robert  Cambert,  who  wrote  and  composed  the  first  French 
comedy  with  music,  as  it  was  termed.  This  was  brought  out 
in  1659.  Ten  years  later  Perrin  was  authorized  by  the  king 
to  establish  an  opera  at  Paris  and  other  places  in  the  kingdom. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  French  opera,  although  the  real 
founder  and  promoter  was  Lully,  to  whom  this  honor  is 
deservedly  given. 

Thus  at  the  very  outset  France  did  not  resign  herself  to  the 
charms  of  Italian  opera,  but  for  over  a  century  pursued  her 
own  independent  path  in  the  development  of  a  national  style 
of  musical  drama.  It  is  not  difficult  to  find  the  reason  for  her 
exceptional  career.  France  had  no  great  traditional  school  of 
church  music  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  educate  and  refine 
the  taste,  as  was  the  case  in  Italy,  and  even  in  Germany 
and  England.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  France  had  no  names 
to  match  with  Palestrina,  Orlando  Lasso,  Schutz,  and  William 

1 68 


OPERA  IN   FRANCE  169 

Byrd.  The  new  style,  which  sprang  up  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  as  much  the  offspring  of  previous  culture  as  it 
was  the  expression  of  a  new  ideal.  Consequently,  the  most 
musical  countries  readily  adopted  Italian  music;  but  in  France 
this  was  not  the  case  with  regard  to  the  style,  although  it 
borrowed  the  idea  of  a  drama  with  music  from  its  neighbors. 
It  was  this  very  deficiency  and  sterility  in  the  musical  life  and  Imitation  of 
organization  of  the  French  that  turned  to  their  advantage,  for 


in  the  absence  of  great  works  of  musical  art,  their  musical 
drama  could  approach  nearer  to  its  ancient  prototype,  the 
Greek  tragedy  with  music.  We  have  seen  that  the  Italians,  in 
spite  of  their  first  attempt  to  produce  a  recitative  which  should 
closely  imitate  the  ancient  type  as  well  as  learning  and  imagina- 
tion could  devise,  were  ultimately  baffled  and  forced  to  abandon 
the  project  by  their  instinctive  love  of  sweet  tones,  which 
could  not  long  endure  the  dry  monotony  of  mere  dramatic 
recitation  in  which  the  tones  are  entirely  subordinate  to  the 
words.  Thus  the  arioso  style  and  the  aria  arose,  and  soon 
became  so  florid  and  sensuous  that  the  original  idea  of  a  pure 
dramatic  music,  with  recitative  all  but  absolute,  was  abandoned 
forever  by  the  Italians.  The  French  taste  for  the  classic  trage- 
dies of  Greece,  and  the  imitative  drama  of  Racine  and  Corneille, 
fully  account  for  the  subordinate  position  early  occupied  by 
French  music,  as  the  handmaid  of  poetry.  Lully,  Rameau,  and 
their  successors  fully  appreciated  the  rhythmical  value  of  the 
words.  In  the  Italian  opera,  on  the  contrary,  the  words  were 
often  disregarded  and  perverted  ;  the  syllables  were  drawn  out 
inordinately  and  the  words  repeated  beyond  the  limits  of  strict 
taste,  in  order  to  serve  the  voice  of  the  singer  and  the  sensuous 
flow  of  the  melody.  The  French  composers  sought  merely  to 
intensify  the  dramatic  expression  by  means  of  the  tones,  and 
though  the  recitative  possessed  this  declamatory  force  and  truth 
of  expression,  it  was  at  the  cost  of  beautiful  melody. 

Jean  Baptiste   Lully  was   a    Florentine   by  birth   (1633).   Jean. 
At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was  taken  to  France  as  a  page  to  Lully 


170  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Mademoiselle  d'Orle'ans,  the  niece  of  Louis  XIV.  The  lady, 
however,  not  liking  his  appearance,  sent  him  into  the  kitchen 
as  an  under-scullion.  His  talent  for  music  had  received  some 
cultivation  previously,  and  he  managed  to  spare  time  from 
his  menial  occupation  to  practise  on  the  violin.  Some  one, 
overhearing  his  performance  on  this  instrument,  drew  the  at- 
tention of  the  princess  to  his  talent,  whereupon  she  provided 
regular  musical  instruction  for  him.  The  proficiency  which 
he  early  acquired  as  a  violinist  led  to  his  appointment  as  a 
member  of  the  king's  band  of  twenty-four  "Violins  du  Roy," 
as  it  was  called.  He  was  speedily  promoted  to  the  place  of 
leader  of  this  band,  and  was  employed  to  compose  music  for 
the  royal  festivals.  The  king,  subsequently,  chose  him  inten- 
dant  of  the  royal  music,  and  granted  him  the  privilege  of 
controlling  the  opera,  which  had  already  been  established. 
Lully  invited  the  poet  Quinault  to  write  texts  for  him,  and  an 
engagement  was  made  that  Quinault  should  write  an  opera 
every  year.  They  held  true  to  this  engagement  for  many 
years,  and  nearly  all  Lully's  music  was  composed  to  Quinault's 
words.  The  opera  became  the  favorite  pastime  of  the  court, 
and  Lully  grew  in  position  and  wealth.  The  king  granted 
him  letters  of  nobility  and  made  him  one  of  his  royal  secre- 
taries, an  office  of  high  honor  and  held  only  by  distinguished 

Lully's          men.    Lully's  character  was  made  up  of  strange  contradictions. 

character  pje  was  avaricious  and  insinuating,  but  perfectly  honest  in  his 
dealings  with  men.  In  his  management  of  the  opera  he  was 
strict  but  just,  and  kept  the  singers  and  performers  in  orderly 
behavior.  His  bluntness  of  speech  often  offended  the  courtiers, 
but  the  king  always  took  it  in  good  part.  At  the  production 
of  one  of  his  operas  the  performance  was  not  ready  to  begin 
at  the  proper  time.  The  king  sent  word  that  he  was  weary  of 
waiting,  and  desired  the  piece  should  begin  without  further 
delay.  The  messenger  told  Lully  that  his  majesty  was  out 
of  all  patience,  and  in  a  violent  passion,  but  the  composer, 
absorbed  in  his  preparations,  said  coolly,  "  His  majesty  can 


OPERA   IN  FRANCE  171 

wait."    The  king  laughed  at  the  answer  and  quietly  waited 
until  Lully  was  ready. 

Lully  understood  the  French  taste  and  how  to  minister  to  Attention 
it.  His  talents  as  a  musician  were  decidedly  inferior  to  his 
clear  understanding  of  stage  effects  ;  he  improved  the  dresses 
of  the  players,  and  showed  refined  taste  in  decorating  the 
stage.  He  remodeled  the  general  form  of  the  drama,  and  had 
a  keen  insight  into  the  true  action  of  the  play.  It  is  certain 
that  his  operas  would  not  have  maintained  their  place  on  the 
French  stage  for  a  century  had  it  not  been  for  all  the  appliances 
which  he  cleverly  adapted  to  make  his  pieces  attractive.  His 
sagacity,  too,  was  displayed  when  he  selected  such  a  poet  as 
Quinault  as  the  writer  of  his  opera  texts.  Lully  paid  him  twice 
as  high  a  salary  as  the  king  would,  and  tyrannized  over  him  to 
his  heart's  content,  as  an  equivalent.  He  was  an  unmerciful 
critic  of  Quinault's  work,  and  when  the  poet  had  furnished  him 
with  a  new  libretto  Lully  did  not  hesitate  to  draw  his  pen 
through  many  a  line.  Quinault  is  known  to  have  altered 
some  scenes  as  many  as  twenty  times  before  the  musician 
was  satisfied  ;  but  Lully  was  judicious  in  his  criticism,  and 
knew  better  than  the  poet  what  would  prove  advantageous  to 
the  play,  and  this  severe  pruning  really  added  to  its  worth  in 
the  end.  On  the  other  hand,  had  Lully  in  turn  found  as 
good  a  critic  of  his  music,  he  would  have  been  benefited ; 
Quinault's  poetry  is  still  read,  while  Lully's  music  is  almost 
forgotten.  The  merits  of  his  operas  lie  more  in  the  rhetorical 
expression  of  the  words  than  in  his  melodies.  There  is  very 
little  beauty  of  melody  in  the  solo  parts,  and  the  ensemble 
effects  of  the  chorus  or  concerted  voices  are  very  simple.  The 
chorus,  however,  occupied  a  definite  place  in  the  drama,  which 
was  not  the  case  in  the  Italian  opera.  He  was  an  enemy  of 
colorature,  or  the  holding  out  of  a  syllable  while  a  series  of 
tones  are  sung  to  it.  The  Italian  composers  of  the  eighteenth 
century  carried  this  practice  to  excess,  but  modern  music  can- 
not wholly  dispense  with  colorature  without  loss.  Lully  would 


172  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

not  permit  the  slightest  infringement  of  the  law  of  verbal 
meter.  The  tiresome  monotony  of  the  recitative  was  hardly 
ever  relieved,  except  by  the  introduction  of  the  arioso  style 
now  and  then  in  the  course  of  the  scene.  His  instrumental 
accompaniments  were  simple,  but  sometimes  effective.  Lully 
is  reputed  to  have  given  a  definite  form  to  the  orchestral 
overture,  which  he  composed  in  three  short,  well-contrasted 
movements. 

Lully 's  first  opera,  "  Les  fetes  de  1'amour,"  was  produced  in 
1672.  Among  the  eighteen  works  which  followed,  the  most 
noted  were  his  "Alceste,"  "  Bellerophon,"  "Phaeton,"  "  Atys," 
"Isis,"  and  "  Armide."  He  also  invented  a  number  of  grand 
ballets  and  other  pieces.  His  "  Armide  "  was  at  first  coldly 
received ;  the  music  was  not  liked.  Lully,  who  was  passion- 
ately fond  of  his  own  music,  had  it  performed  for  his  per- 
sonal gratification,  he  himself  forming  the  whole  audience. 
When  this  odd  circumstance  was  reported  to  the  king,  he 
thought  that  the  opera  could  not  be  bad  if  Lully  himself  had 
so  good  an  opinion  of  it.  Having,  therefore,  ordered  it  to  be 
performed  before  him,  he  was  charmed  with  it,  and  then  both 
the  court  and  the  public  changed  their  opinion  of  its  merits. 
Lully  died  in  1687,  leaving  an  enormous  fortune  for  his 
time,  —  over  half  a  million  livres.  He  was  a  rough  man  both 
in  looks  and  manner,  but  was  honest  and  manly.  His  operas 
held  their  place  on  the  French  stage  for  a  century.  He  had 
two  sons  who  were  musicians.  Among  his  followers  was 
Colasse,  the  author  of  several  operas,  but  his  most  noted 
successor  was  Rameau,  who  created  a  new  era  in  French  opera, 
jean  Jean  Philippe  Rameau  was  born  at  Dijon  in  1683.  He  was 

the  son  of  an  organist,  and  evinced  in  his  early  years  remark- 
able intelligence  and  rare  talent  for  organ  playing  and  counter- 
point. As  a  boy  of  fourteen  years  he  was  able,  it  is  said,  to 
improvise  fugues  with  several  subjects.  His  good  and  bad 
traits  of  character  came  to  light  early  in  life.  He  ran  away 
from  home  and  joined  a  traveling  theatrical  company  as  musical 


OPERA   IN   FRANCE  173 

director.  At  Paris  his  talents  as  an  organist  made  his  name 
speedily  known.  His  industry  was  great,  his  ambition  insatia- 
ble. He  became  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  organist  Marchand, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Naples  to  continue  his  musical  studies. 
On  his  return  to  France  he  composed  the  opera  "  Hippolyte 
et  Aricie."  The  appearance  of  this  work  created  a  sensation 
in  Paris.  The  worshipers  of  Lully  found  innovations  in  it 
which  they  considered  as  attacking  the  very  foundations  of 
the  French  national  opera ;  but  their  fierce  opposition  ceased 
when  it  was  found  that  he  was  not  seeking  to  revolutionize 
but  simply  to  develop  the  principles  which  his  predecessors  had 
laid  down.  His  declamation  and  musical  rhythm  were  more  His  merits 


as  a  com- 


sharply  pointed  and  defined  than  Lully's  ;  in  fact,  Rameau  was  er 
greatly  superior  to  him  as  a  musician.  He  was  gifted  with 
more  talent  and  invention  than  the  older  French  masters. 
The  choruses  of  his  operas  were  of  a  much  higher  order  ;  they 
did  not  consist  of  a  lifeless  succession  of  simple  chords,  but 
the  vocal  parts  moved  freely  in  good  counterpoint,  which  was 
often  imitative  and  fugal,  showing  the  skill  of  the  organist 
rather  than  that  of  the  dramatic  composer.  Rameau  was  in- 
fluenced considerably  by  his  Italian  studies  ;  his  arioso  style 
resembled  that  of  contemporary  masters  like  Scarlatti  and 
Bononcini.  His  orchestral  accompaniments  were  characterized 
by  a  certain  freedom  of  movement,  by  the  introduction  of 
motives  here  and  there,  and  by  a  better  combination  of  instru- 
ments than  was  known  to  his  predecessors.  Rameau  wrote 
thirty-six  works  for  the  stage.  His  compositions  for  the  clavi- 
chord are  charming,  and  in  this  branch  of  music  he  stands  as 
one  of  the  foremost  of  his  time.  His  treatise  on  harmony  is 
the  first  published  work  on  the  subject,  and  it  laid  the  founda- 
tions for  a  true  science  of  harmony.  The  titles  of  a  number 
of  his  works  are  proof  of  his  research  and  invention  in  the 
field  of  musical  theory. 

The  absolute  supremacy  of  the  national  opera  of  Lully  and  opera  buffa 
Rameau  was  greatly  shaken  by  the  introduction  of  the  opera 


174  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

buff  a  by  an  Italian  company  in  1752.  They  exhibited  "La 
serva  padrona"  of  Pergolesi.  This  piece,  which  I  have  already 
described,  had  a  wonderful  success ;  it  drew  crowds  to  the 
theater  night  after  night.  The  public  was  divided  into  two 
great  parties  for  and  against  this  new  appearance  in  the  mu- 
sical world.  Ink  was  shed  freely  by  the  literati.  Rousseau 
himself  entered  the  arena,  and  declared  himself  enthusiastic- 
ally in  favor  of  this  music,  and  proved  his  words  by  compos- 
ing his  comic  opera,  "  Le  devin  du  village."  It  is  no  wonder 
that  the  public  accepted  the  comic  opera  from  the  outset.  It 
was  more  attractive  to  the  French,  whose  lively  gayety  quickly 
responded  to  the  light  and  pleasing  character  of  the  music 
and  the  play.  They  were  quite  ready  to  break  the  heavy 
fetters  imposed  on  them  by  the  stiff  and  pompous  tragedy. 
The  Italian  company,  or  "  bouffons,"  as  they  were  designated, 
were  very  prosperous  for  a  while,  but  as  they  sang  in  a  foreign 
tongue,  they  were  not  appreciated  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
Finally,  they  were  neglected  and  took  their  departure  from  the 
country ;  but  they  had  sown  the  seed  which  one  day  bore 
good  fruit.  After  the  Italians  had  gone,  "  La  serva  padrona" 
was  translated  into  French  and  performed  to  full  houses. 
The  oper-  Duni,  the  Italian  contemporary  and  rival  of  Pergolesi,  came  to 
andGr^ry  Par^s  m  J757>  an<^  introduced  a  new  kind  of  musical  drama, 
in  which  there  was  a  good  deal  of  spoken  dialogue  in  the 
less  emotional  parts  of  the  play ;  this  was  the  origin  of  the 
so-called  operetta,  which  was  subsequently  developed  by  French 
and  German  composers  into  a  noble  form,  as  shown  in  the 
great  works  of  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  Cherubini.  The 
immediate  French  composers  of  the  comic  style  were  Philidor 
and  Monsigny ;  and  a  generation  later,  Gretry,  Dalayrac,  and 
Gossec.  Gretry  brought  the  comic  opera  to  its  full  maturity, 
and  gave  it  the  form  and  character  which  have  rendered  it 
the  truest  expression  of  the  French  taste  in  dramatic  music. 
He  was  also  remarkably  fertile  in  ideas  and  a  very  prolific 
composer,  having  produced  no  less  than  fifty  operas  in  the 


OPERA  IN  FRANCE  175 

space  of  thirty-eight  years,  sometimes  as  many  as  three  in  a 
single  year.  His  principal  operas  are  "Le  Huron,"  "  Zemire," 
"Anacreon,"  and  "Richard  Cceur  de  Lion."  This  last-named 
work  became  famous  ;  it  was  translated  into  German,  Italian, 
English,  Russian,  and  Swedish,  and  performed  in  various  cap- 
itals. It  is  still  frequently  performed  at  Paris  and,  together 
with  the  other  operas  named,  deserves  a  permanent  place  in  the 
repertory  of  every  great  theater.  Gretry  had  a  rare  talent  for 
natural  expression  and  musical  characterization ;  his  melodies 
are  simple  and  pleasing,  and  his  orchestration  graceful  and 
varied. 


CHAPTER  XV 
OPERA  IN  ENGLAND 

Opera  in  In  England  the  opera  was  under  Italian  influence  almost 

under^ltal-  from  the  outset ;  it  enjoyed  only  a  brief  native  existence  under 
ian  influ-  Purcell  and  Locke,  and  since  that  period,  even  to  this  day,  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  notwithstanding  the  various 
attempts  that  have  been  made  to  raise  up  a  national  school. 
If  as  liberal  and  intelligent  support  had  been  given  to  English 
musicians  after  Elizabeth's  reign  as  was  the  case  during  that 
wise  monarch's  lifetime,  a  great  national  school  of  music  would 
have  arisen  to  match  and  far  excel  the  work  already  begun  by 
Tallis,  Byrd,  Dowland,  and  other  masters  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  England  would  never  have  become  so  dependent 
on  Germany  and  Italy  for  her  musical  life  as  she  has  been  dur- 
ing the  last  two  centuries.  Puritanism  could  not  tolerate  art 
in  any  form,  and  consequently,  during  its  revolutionary  sway, 
the  only  noble  school  of  music  of  which  England  could  boast 
in  her  history  was  cut  off.  I  refer,  of  course,  to  the  church 
and  secular  music  of  Tallis,  Byrd,  Morley,  Wilbye,  and  others. 
We  can  form  an  idea  of  the  fanatical  abhorrence  of  the 
Puritans  for  artistic  music  from  the  words  of  Prynne,  who  pub- 
lished a  book  directed  against  all  kinds  of  plays  or  entertain- 
ments, dancing,  dicing,  health  drinking,  and  the  like.  He  is  the 
bitter  enemy  of  all  music  except  psalm  singing,  and  denounces 
all  plays  as  "sinfull,  heathenish,  lewd,  ungodly  spectacles, 
condemned  in  all  ages  as  intolerable  mischiefs  to  churches, 
to  republics,  to  the  manners,  minds,  and  soules  of  men.  .  .  . 
Play -haunters  are  little  better  than  incarnate  devils." 

I  have  already  mentioned  the  plays  with  music  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  and  during  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  as  well  as 

176 


OPERA  IN   ENGLAND  177 

the  music  by  Henry  Lawes,  the  talented  and  popular  com- 
poser of  the  music  to  Milton's  "  Comus."  During  the  rule  of 
the  Puritans  theatrical  performances  of  all  kinds  were  pro- 
hibited. The  only  exception  was  made  in  1656  in  favor  of 
Sir  William  Davenant,  who  opened  an  exhibition  which  he 
called  "  an  entertainment  in  declamation  and  music,  after  the 
manner  of  the  ancients," -- which  served  as  a  kind  of  blind 
to  the  fanatical  Puritans.  The  music  for  this  entertainment 
was  composed  by  Henry  Lawes  and  other  noted  musicians  of 
that  time.  This  was  followed  by  "  The  Siege  of  Rhodes,"  in 
stile  recitativo,  and  consequently  was  the  first  real  opera  sung 
in  England.  Davenant  produced  next  a  piece  with  scenes 
and  decorations,  called  "The  Cruelty  of  the  Spaniards  in 
Peru."  These  rude  attempts  do  not  merit  the  name  of  opera  ; 
meanwhile  Italy  had  produced  a  Monteverde  and  a  Carissimi, 
and  the  opera  had  gained  a  permanent  hold  on  society. 

It  was  not  before  1670  that  the  restrictions  on  stage  plays 
were  withdrawn.  Charles  II  encouraged  theaters,  music,  and 
the  other  arts.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  Locke,  Purcell, 
and  Carey  flourished  ;  but  it  was  beyond  their  power  to  repair 
the  loss  which  English  music  had  suffered  during  this  long 
neglect.  The  Italian  opera  was  now  all-powerful.  Had  Eng- 
land enjoyed  inward  peace  and  tranquillity  during  the  half 
century  succeeding  the  introduction  of  the  secular  style,  a 
class  of  native  musicians  would  have  arisen  to  instill  new  life 
into  English  music.  As  the  direct  successors  of  the  celebrated 
madrigal  writers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  those  masters  would 
have  been  able  to  compete  with  the  best  foreign  contempo- 
raries of  the  art ;  but  Purcell,  though  he  was  a  man  of 
undoubted  genius,  could  not  accomplish  this  desired  result 
single-handed.  The  Italians  invaded  England  in  full  force,  and 
at  last,  Handel,  the  master  of  them  all,  arrived  to  hold  the 
natives  in  subjection  as  a  musical  conqueror. 

Matthew  Locke  was  born  at  Exeter,  and  brought  up  as  a  Matthew 
chorister  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city.    He  was  employed  to  Locke 


1 78  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

compose  the  music  for  the  public  entrance  of  Charles  II  at 
the  Restoration,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  composer  in 
ordinary  to  the  king.  His  best  known  works  are  his  opera 
"  Psyche,"  and  the  music  to  Shakespeare's  "  Macbeth."  This 
latter  work  is  still  performed,  and  holds  a  permanent  connec- 
tion with  the  great  tragedy  to  which  it  was  composed. 

During  Charles  IFs  reign  the  fashionable  taste  in  music 
was  influenced  considerably  in  favor  of  French  music  by  the 
Duchess  of  Mazarin,  who  made  England  her  residence  in  1675. 
Cambert,  one  of  the  first  French  opera  composers,  was  called 
to  England  by  the  king,  and  appointed  his  royal  director  of 
music.  The  duchess  held  at  her  house  musical  dramatic  en- 
tertainments which  were  very  magnificent  and  fashionable. 
Henry  Henry  Purcell,  one  of  the  greatest  musical  geniuses  Eng- 

land has  yet  produced,  was  born  in  the  year  1658.  He  was 
the  son  of  the  well-known  musician,  Henry  Purcell,  gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  Charles  IPs  reign,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  Dr.  Blow.  His  genius  showed  itself  at  a  very  early  age ; 
while  he  was  a  mere  boy  he  composed  anthems  which  are 
sung  to  this  day.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Westminster  Abbey,  and  two  years  later  he  was 
appointed  to  be  one  of  the  three  organists  of  the  royal  chapel. 
His  talent  for  dramatic  music  was  displayed  equally  early  in 
life,  and  his  first  essay  was  made  in  this  style  when  he  was 
but  nineteen  years  old,  in  the  form  of  an  operetta  called 
"Dido  and  ^Eneas."  This  youthful  work  showed  decided 
evidences  of  genius,  though  it  lacked  the  ripeness  of  his  later 
efforts.  The  success  of  the  piece  soon  opened  the  way  to 
new  undertakings.  He  was  engaged  by  several  managers  of 
the  theaters  to  write  music  for  the  stage.  In  this  way  he 
composed  overtures,  pieces  to  be  performed  between  the  acts, 
and  incidental  songs.  Dryden,  the  poet,  became  a  warm 
friend  of  Purcell  and  wrote  the  text  of  "  King  Arthur  "  for 
him,  and  with  Davenant  altered  Shakespeare's  "  Tempest " 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  room  for  scenic  decoration  and 


OPERA  IN   ENGLAND  179 

music.  "King  Arthur"  appeared  in  1691,  and  was  brought 
out  with  great  splendor  and  success.  This  opera  is  considered 
one  of  Purcell's  best,  and  has  been  adapted  to  the  modern 
stage  under  the  name  of  "Arthur  and  Emmeline."  Other 
operas  by  Purcell  are  the  "Indian  Queen"  (which  contains 
the  celebrated  recitative  and  air,  "  Ye  twice  ten  hundred 
deities"),  "Tyrannic  Love,"  "The  Prophetess,"  "Bonduca," 
and  "  Don  Quixote." 

Purcell's  church  music  holds  an  honored  place  in  the 
cathedral  service  of  Great  Britain.  His  facile  genius  was  not 
confined  to  one  branch,  but  he  excelled  alike  in  dramatic, 
church,  and  chamber  music.  His  sonatas  for  two  violins  and 
a  bass  are  worthy  to  be  compared  with  the  best  of  his  time. 
In  his  preface  to  the  first  set  of  twelve  sonatas  he  admits  his 
obligations  to  the  Italian  composers.  The  trios  of  Corelli 
were  published  in  the  same  year  with  Purcell's,  so  that  they 
could  not  have  served  as  a  model  to  the  English  master, 
although  his  sonatas  belong  to  the  same  school. 

In  the  field  of  dramatic  music  Purcell  is  to  be  compared  only  His  dra- 
with  the  very  greatest  masters  in  force  and  truth  of  dramatic 
expression.  Although  he  studied  foreign  masters  diligently, 
he  had  a  decided  style  of  his  own.  His  imperfections  are 
slight,  and  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  state  of  music  in  England 
in  his  time.  Purcell  well-nigh  created  English  secular  solo 
music,  for  although  there  were  many  popular  airs  current  long 
before  his  day,  he  was  almost  the  first  master  to  write  can- 
tabile  and  dramatic  airs,  in  the  new  higher  style  which  Italy 
had  originated.  All  critics  admit  that  the  supreme  merit  of 
Purcell's  music  is  its  genuine  English  character ;  that  it  is 
more  truly  national  than  any  music  before  his  time.  "  Though 
his  dramatic  style  and  recitative,"  says  Burney,  "were  formed, 
in  a  great  measure,  on  French  models,  there  is  a  latent  power 
and  force  in  his  expression  of  English  words,  whatever  be  the 
subject,  that  will  make  an  unprejudiced  native  of  this  island  feel 
more  than  all  the  elegance,  grace,  and  refinement  of  modern 


l8o  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

music,  less  happily  applied,  can  do.  And  this  pleasure  is  com- 
municated to  us,  not  by  the  symmetry  or  rhythm  of  modern 
melody,  but  by  his  having  fortified,  lengthened,  and  tuned  the 
true  accents  of  our  mother  tongue ;  those  notes  of  passion 
which  an  inhabitant  of  this  island  would  breathe  in  such  situ- 
ations as  the  words  describe." 

Purcell  is  the  direct  forerunner  of  Handel  in  the  musical 
health  and  strength  that  animate  his  works,  and  in  unity  of 
form  and  effect,  in  the  lofty  spirit  of  his  choruses,  as  well  as 
in  his  many-sidedness.  From  the  one  master  to  the  other  is  a 
natural  step.  Purcell,  like  Mozart,  died  young.  After  a  short 
illness,  he  died  in  1695,  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Purcell  did  not  live  to  see 
grouped  around  him  great  musicians  of  his  own  country  and 
school ;  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  grand  national  school,  but  no 
English  successors  arose  to  complete  the  work  so  ably  begun. 

French  opera  enjoyed  only  a  brief  career  in  England ;  it 
disappeared  wholly  after  the  year  1690,  and  the  Italians  began 
to  invade  England  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  actual  introduction  of  the  Italian-  opera,  however,  was 
preceded  by  adaptations  of  Italian  pieces  to  the  English  stage. 
An  Italianized  Englishman,  Thomas  Clayton,  brought  out 
several  of  these  pieces.  The  era  of  Italian  opera  in  England 
did  not  fairly  begin  until  the  arrival  of  Handel  in  1710. 

Henry  Carey  (1695-1743),  the  only  English  musician  of 
that  time  worthy  of  being  called,  in  some  degree,  the  successor 
of  Purcell,  was  the  author  of  the  words  and  music  of  charming' 
songs  and  ballad  operas.  His  melodies  have  a  genuine  pop- 
ular and  national  ring.  One  of  his  songs,  the  quaint  and  lovely 
"Sally  in  our  Alley,"  is  as  great  a  favorite  to-day  as  it  was 
two  centuries  ago,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  an 
English  song  extant.  His  life  on  earth  was  a  sad  one,  full  of 
want  and  despair ;  but  now  he  is  rich  in  the  love  of  all  who 
have  learned  to  know  him  in  his  imperishable  melodies.  Chry- 
sander  justly  styles  him  the  "  King  of  English  Minstrels." 


CHAPTER  XVI 

GERMAN  OPERA  AT  HAMBURG 

Italian  opera  was  introduced  into  Germany  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century  by  Heinrich  Schiitz,  but  it  was  not  gen- 
erally cultivated  in  that  country  before  the  era  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan masters  of  the  eighteenth  century,  although  at  Hamburg 
there  sprang  into  premature  existence  a  native  style  of  musi- 
cal drama  under  Keiser,  Mattheson,  Handel,  Telemann,  and 
others.  A  more  favorable  place  could  not  have  been  chosen 
for  this  experiment,  as  it  may  be  termed,  for  Hamburg  was 
even  in  those  days  a  rich  and  flourishing  city  whose  citizens 
were  well  able  to  provide  the  means  indispensable  to  such 
an  undertaking.  It  was  mainly  through  the  zeal  of  Gerhard 
Schott,  an  alderman  and  jurist  of  Hamburg,  that  the  opera 
was  set  on  foot  and  supported,  and  as  long  as  he  lived  it  did 
not  lack  encouragement.  This  period  embraces  over  sixty 
years,  and  witnesses  the  highest  musical  attainment  of  the 
Hamburg  stage.  The  first  ambitious  attempt  in  dramatic  Theile's 
music  was  made  in  1678,  when  the  opera  house  on  the  Goose 
Market  was  opened  with  a  musical  play  called  "Adam  and 
Eve,"  by  Theile.  This  sacred  allegorical  play  was  succeeded 
by  a  number  of  similar  pieces  by  the  same  composer,  who  was 
a  good  musician.  The  spectacle  of  the  play  seems  to  have 
been  the  chief  attraction  of  all  these  pieces,  which  are  quite 
as  remarkable  for  their  rude,  incongruous  character  as  any 
that  have  received  our  notice  in  the  early  history  of  the  opera  in 
other  countries.  During  this  first  period  of  the  Hamburg  opera 
the  successful  masters  besides  Theile  were  Franck,  Strungk, 
the  celebrated  violinist,  Fortsch,  Conradi,  and  Kusser.  This 
last-mentioned  composer  was  appointed  chapelmaster  in  1693. 

181 


182 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Kusser 


Reinhard 
Keiser 


Kusser  produced  a  number  of  original  operas,  but  it  was 
chiefly  by  means  of  his  remarkable  talent  as  a  disciplinarian, 
and  by  the  introduction  of  a  better  style  of  music  and  singing, 
that  he  accomplished  a  decided  improvement  in  the  German 
opera.  Steffani,  whose  duets  are  so  remarkable,  was  his 
model  as  a  dramatic  composer,  and  Kusser  brought  out  this 
master's  operas  on  the  Hamburg  stage.  He  found  it  very  dif- 
ficult at  first  to  provide  singers  for  his  opera  roles,  and  was 
so  hard  pushed  that  he  had  to  make  use  of  all  kinds  of  people. 
"  Hidden  behind  the  masks  of  the  Olympian  gods  and  heroes," 
says  von  Dommer,  "  were  cobblers  and  tailors,  wild  students, 
and  all  sorts  of  vagabonds,  who  had  little  or  no  voice.  Mar- 
ket women,  leaders  in  the  fish  and  vegetable  line,  figured  as 
ancient  goddesses  and  queens."  But  Kusser's  unexampled 
talent  and  energy  overcame  all  obstacles.  Mattheson  declared 
that  Kusser  never  had  an  equal  as  chapelmaster.  During  his 
brief  stay  at  Hamburg  he  elevated  the  musical  character  of 
the  place  in  a  remarkable  degree,  and  smoothed  the  path 
for  Keiser,  the  presiding  genius  of  this  epoch. 

Reinhard  Keiser  was  born  near  Leipzig  in  1673,  and  was 
educated  at  the  St.  Thomas  School  and  at  the  university  in 
that  city.  He  was  appointed  chapelmaster  of  the  Hamburg 
opera  in  1694.  Keiser  was  a  man  of  undoubted  genius;  his 
productivity  as  a  composer  was  immense,  and  seems  almost  in- 
credible. He  composed  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  operas, 
many  of  which  contained  no  less  than  forty  or  fifty  airs,  be- 
sides choruses,  recitatives,  etc.  In  all  his  serious  operas  there 
was  no  spoken  dialogue  ;  all  was  sung  throughout.  His  operas 
were  performed  all  over  Germany,  and  were  sung  even  in 
Paris.  His  activity  was  not  confined  to  the  stage ;  he  also 
composed  church  music,  passion  music,  and  cantatas. 

Keiser  had  a  rare  and  inexhaustible  gift  of  melody  ;  his 
recitatives  are  masterly ;  but  the  form  of  his  music  lacks  that 
breadth  and  massive  strength  which  distinguish  his  successor, 
Handel.  "All  that  Keiser  wrote,"  says  Mattheson,  "was 


GERMAN  OPERA  AT  HAMBURG       183 

uncommonly  easy  to  sing,  and  was  so  easily  caught  by  the 
ear  that  one  had  rather  admire  his  music  than  praise  it."  But 
he  failed  to  take  that  deep  and  earnest  interest  in  music  which 
is  absolutely  requisite  in  order  to  accomplish  lasting  results. 
His  course  of  life  was  not  exemplary ;  he  was  more  fond  of 
wine  and  jovial  company  than  of  his  art.  Keiser,  therefore, 
did  not  exert  an  enduring  influence  for  good  on  the  Hamburg 
opera,  although  for  a  short  time  his  brilliant  genius  led  it 
onward.  He  appeared  to  the  public  as  a  bright  light,  but 
though  the  opera  under  his  able  direction  reached  for  the 
moment  a  higher  point  of  excellence,  his  disorderly  course 
soon  brought  it  down  again  from  its  elevation.  He  did  not 
refrain  from  lending  his  art  to  the  most  trivial  and  nonsensi- 
cal farces  to  afford  amusement  to  the  rough  and  common 
people.  Mattheson  compares  him  with  the  more  earnest  com- 
poser, Rosenmiiller,  whose  sonatas  were  "  like  fresh  blue  salmon 
of  the  Elbe,"  while  Reiser's  light  music  was  "like  the  smoked 
golden  herrings  of  the  North  Sea,  which  tickle  the  palate,  but 
awaken  a  thirst  for  drink." 

Instead  of  the  sacred  spectacles  and  plays  which  at  the  The  opera 
outset  formed  the  subject  of  the  drama  on  the  Hamburg  deteriorates 
stage,  the  gods  and  heroes  of  ancient  mythology  and  the  most 
vulgar  farces  now  divided  the  attention  of  the  eager  public. 
The  stage  spectacle  grew  more  and  more  sensational ;  fire- 
works, devils,  serpents  and  dragons,  battle  scenes,  and  all 
kinds  of  noises  and  sights  became  indispensable  to  the  opera. 
Not  content  with  mere  humanity  on  the  stage,  the  lower 
animals  were  called  upon  to  contribute  to  the  effect.  Horses, 
camels,  asses,  and  apes  were  introduced,  and  the  roars  and 
cries  of  wild  beasts  produced  very  expressive  music.  Again, 
in  some  operas  no  less  than  four  different  languages  were 
sung  indiscriminately,  —  French,  Italian,  High  German,  and 
Low  German.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  abuses  and  absurdi- 
ties the  Hamburg  operas  remained  worthy  of  the  services  of 
a  Handel  and  a  Mattheson. 


1 84 


THE  HISTORY   OF  MUSIC 


Mattheson 


His  rela- 
tions with 
Handel 


Johann  Mattheson  (1680-1764)  was  born  at  Hamburg, 
where  he  began  his  musical  career  as  a  singer  at  the  opera, 
and  made  his  last  appearance  in  that  capacity  in  Handel's 
"Nero,"  in  1705.  He  was  a  man  of  wonderful  versatility  of 
talent.  A  finished  performer  on  the  harpsichord,  a  good  actor 
and  singer,  and  a  very  prolific  composer,  but  did  not  possess 
originality  nor  depth  of  conception.  As  a  literary  man  he  still 
holds  an  eminent  place  in  musical  history.  He  used  his  facile 
pen  first  on  an  opera  or  passion,  then  on  musical  essays,  or 
the  translation  of  a  pamphlet  on  the  "  Properties  and  Virtues 
of  Noble  Tobacco."  His  music,  which  was  once  so  lauded,  no 
longer  lives,  but  his  writings  are  still  of  value  to  the  student 
of  musical  literature.  Although  his  pen  was  not  always  guided 
by  a  wise  understanding  and  a  right  heart,  he  left  much  that 
is  interesting.  His  writings  give  valuable  information  of  his 
time,  and  are  full  of  wit  and  humor.  The  most  famous  of  his 
books  are :  "  Der  vollkommene  Kapellmeister "  (Complete 
Chapelmaster),  "  Das  neueroffnete  Orchester  "  (Newly  opened 
Orchestra),  and  "  Die  Ehrenpforte  "  (Triumphal  Arch),  which 
contains  the  biographies  of  contemporary  musicians.  These 
works  have  a  permanent  place  in  every  musical  library. 

Soon  after  Handel's  arrival  at  Hamburg,  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  he  came  into  contact  with  Mattheson.  The  latter's 
public  position  and  seniority  of  age  justified  him  in  taking 
Handel  somewhat  under  his  patronage.  Handel  behaved  him- 
self in  a  very  modest  manner,  and  quietly  took  his  place  in 
the  orchestra  below  the  second  violins.  An  opportunity  was 
soon  afforded  him  to  display  his  ability  as  a  harpsichordist 
and  accompanist,  and  he  was  sometimes  invited  to  fill  this 
post  at  the  opera.  On  one  occasion  Handel  accompanied  at 
the  harpsichord  while  Mattheson  was  singing,  in  his  own  opera 
of  "Cleopatra,"  the  part  of  Antony.  On  the  death  of  Antony, 
which  happened  early  in  the  piece,  Mattheson  divested  him- 
self of  his  royal  trappings  and  came  into  the  orchestra  to  take 
his  usual  place  at  the  harpsichord,  but  Handel  would  not 


GERMAN  OPERA  AT  HAMBURG       185 

resign  his  seat.  On  leaving  the  theater  Mattheson  gave  Handel 
a  smart  box  on  the  ear,  and  when  they  had  come  to  the  open 
square  they  drew  their  swords  and  a  desperate  encounter  en- 
sued ;  but  fortunately,  it  is  said,  Mattheson's  sword  broke  on  a 
large  button  on  his  adversary's  coat,  or,  as  others  say,  against 
the  score  of  Mattheson's  opera,  which  Handel  had  thrust  into 
his  bosom.  This  foolish  quarrel  went  no  farther  and  they  soon 
became  reconciled.  Mattheson  philosophizes  on  the  affair  thus: 
"  If  you  break  your  sword  on  your  friend,  you  do  not  injure 
him  so  much  as  if  you  spoke  ill  of  him." 

Handel's  first  opera,  "Almira,"  was  produced  at  Hamburg 
in  1705,  and  was  so  well  received  that  it  had  a  run  of  thirty 
nights,  when  it  was  withdrawn  to  make  place  for  his  "  Nero." 
These  two  youthful  works  were  the  only  ones  which  Handel 
brought  out  under  his  own  direction,  though  he  also  composed 
for  the  Hamburg  stage  the  operas  of  "  Daphne  "  and  "  Flor- 
indo,"  which  were  performed  there  after  his  departure.  The 
impression  which  they  made  was  undoubtedly  considerable, 
for  even  at  that  early  period  of  his  life  he  must  have  stood 
in  favorable  contrast  to  his  associates  in  musical  originality 
and  skill.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  he  could  not  appear 
to  them  as  a  matured  master  ;  for  he  had  yet  to  gain  that 
experience  which  years  and  contact  with  the  world  alone  can 
give,  before  his  grand,  manly  character  could  be  impressed  in 
strong  and  unmistakable  outlines  on  his  works.  But  he  was 
already  acknowledged  to  be  their  superior  as  an  organist  and 
contrapuntist.  Handel  left  Hamburg  in  1706,  and  during  the 
same  year  went  to  Italy.  His  manly  independence  is  well 
shown  in  this  connection ;  he  was  invited  to  accompany  an 
Italian  prince  whom  he  had  met  at  Hamburg,  but  rather  than 
be  one  of  the  prince's  retinue,  he  declined  the  invitation,  and 
preferred  to  pay  his  expenses  out  of  his  hard-earned  savings ; 
he  traveled  thence  alone. 

After  the  death  of  the  chief  director  Schott,  the  opera  at  Ham-  Telemann 
burg  rapidly  degenerated,  though  strenuous  efforts  were  made  at  Hamburg 


i86 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Italian 
opera  at 
Hamburg 


to  sustain  the  musical  fortunes  of  the  place.  To  this  end  the 
celebrated  composer,  Georg  Philipp  Telemann,  was  invited  to 
take  the  position  of  chapelmaster.  This  musician  was  born  at 
Magdeburg  in  1681.  Before  his  call  to  Hamburg  he  had 
acquired  a  wide  reputation  as  a  chapelmaster  and  composer. 
His  oratorios  and  sacred  cantatas  were  considered  to  be  mas- 
terpieces, but,  like  his  contemporaries  Hasse  and  Graun,  his 
fame  hardly  outlived  his  days.  He  was  a  wonderfully  produc- 
tive composer,  and  the  quantity  of  his  music  can  best  be 
appreciated  by  turning  to  the  list  of  his  works,  which  com- 
prises about  forty  operas,  six  hundred  overtures,  a  number 
of  oratorios,  forty-four  passions,  twelve  complete  annual  sets 
of  church  cantatas,  and  other  sacred  music,  besides  instru- 
mental music  of  all  kinds.  We  cannot  say  much  for  the  quality 
of  these  works.  Telemann  sought  for  originality  at  the  cost 
of  beauty  and  naturalness ;  he  sacrificed  melody  for  declama- 
tion ;  his  hasty  manner  of  composing  gave  rise  to  grave  defi- 
ciencies. It  was  not  long  after  Telemann  had  resigned  his 
place  that  the  Hamburg  opera  lost  its  distinctive  character. 
In  1740  it  was  succeeded  by  the  first  Italian  troupe  in  that 
city,  under  Mignotti.  But  although  the  Italian  opera  had 
meanwhile  gained  absolute  possession  of  all  the  principal 
theaters  of  Europe,  the  sixty  years  of  German  opera  at  Ham- 
burg were  not  spent  in  vain  ;  for  this  premature  attempt  gave 
conclusive  proof  that  the  time  was  rapidly  advancing  when 
the  creative  musical  impulse  of  the  German  people  would 
assert  itself.  The  representative  works  of  Bach  and  Handel, 
Gluck  and  Mozart,  were  destined  to  replace  all  that  had  been 
accomplished  hitherto  in  Germany. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  there  is  hardly  a  single  form  of 
music,  except  popular  songs  and  dances  and  the  masses  and 
motets  of  the  old  church  masters,  which  the  rest  of  the  world 
has  not  borrowed  from  Italy.  The  choral,  passion  music, 
madrigal,  recitative  and  air,  opera  and  oratorio,  sacred  con- 
certo and  secular  cantata,  the  various  forms  of  instrumental 


GERMAN  OPERA  AT  HAMBURG        187 

music,  such  as  the  sonata,  symphony,  modern  fugue,  toccata, 
etc.,  all  owe  their  names  and  origin  to  Italy.  But  while  we 
gratefully  acknowledge  this  fact,  our  deeper  homage  should  be 
paid  principally  to  Germany,  where  these  various  forms  of 
music  were  enlarged  and  ennobled,  and  in  most  instances 
raised  to  the  highest  point  yet  attained  in  history. 

For  centuries  Germany  rendered  the  tribute  of  respect  and  Heinrich 
admiration  to  Italy  by  sending  her  musical  talent  there  to  be     ° 


educated.  One  of  the  most  noted  German  masters  of  the  sev-  Dresden 
enteenth  century  was  a  pupil  of  the  great  Venetian  school. 
Heinrich  Schii  tz,  pupil  of  John  Gabrieli,  was  born  in  1585.  His 
decided  musical  talent  led  the  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse  Cassel 
to  send  him  to  Venice  to  study.  On  his  return  to  Germany 
he  was  called  to  Dresden  and  was  appointed  royal  chapel- 
master  at  that  capital,  a  position  which  he  held  from  1617 
till  his  death  in  1672.  Under  his  direction  the  music  at 
Dresden  won  a  high  reputation.  His  character  as  a  man  and 
an  artist  exercised  a  great  influence  on  his  countrymen  ;  he 
sent  Germans  to  Italy  to  study,  and  attracted  Italian  masters 
to  Germany,  besides  educating  a  number,  being  a  successful 
teacher  himself.  Schiitz  was  a  thoroughly  educated  man  ;  his 
sterling  character,  his  uprightness,  manliness,  and  sincerity 
in  all  his  dealings  with  men,  secured  for  him  the  admiration 
and  esteem  of  all  classes  of  society.  His  Italian  education 
under  Gabrieli  rendered  him  a  zealous  participant  in  the  new 
musical  movement  of  the  day,  and,  though  his  activity  was 
exhibited  chiefly  as  a  composer  of  church  music,  he  was 
the  first  to  introduce  the  opera  into  Germany.  He  was  a 
thorough  master  of  the  mediaeval  tonal  system  and  studied 
profoundly  the  a  cappella  style  of  the  earlier  Venetians.  He 
did  not,  however,  remain  fixed  to  the  older  school,  but  eagerly 
adopted  the  ideas  of  Monteverde  and  other  progressive  musi- 
cians. And,  above  all,  he  did  not  lose  his  own  nationality  in 
his  admiration  for  Italian  music.  His  works  were  Teutonic 
in  character  ;  they  were  the  foundation  of  modern  German 


1 88  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

music.  More  than  any  other  German  master  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  he  was  the  means  of  elevating  the  musical 
character  of  his  country  to  the  glorious  height  it  subsequently 
reached  in  the  mature  works  of  Bach  and  Handel. 

First  opera  Opera  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  any  foreign  country 
Italy1  e  under  Schiitz  at  the  court  of  Torgau,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
marriage  ceremonies  of  the  Landgraf  of  Hesse  with  Sophia 
Eleanor  of  Saxony  in  1627.  Rinuccini's  "  Dafne  "  was  trans- 
lated into  German  for  this  purpose,  and  set  to  music  by 
Schiitz,  as  the  old  composition  of  Peri  could  not  be  adapted 
to  the  translated  text.  Schiitz's  new  music  to  this  play  has 
been  lost.  This  beginning  of  the  opera  in  Germany  was  not 
followed  up,  however,  either  by  Schiitz  or  others.  It  was  not 
till  toward  the  end  of  the  century  that  the  German  opera 
was  cultivated  in  a  national  style,  under  Keiser,  Mattheson, 
and  others  at  Hamburg.  Henceforth  the  people  enjoyed  this 
entertainment,  which  formerly  had  been  reserved  exclusively 
for  the  rich  and  great ;  though  it  is  true  there  existed  for  a 
long  time  previously  a  kind  of  operetta  of  popular  origin.  We 
read  of  such  a  dramatic  musical  play  at  Nuremberg  in  1618, 
entitled,  "A  fine  play  of  three  bad  wives  who  could  neither 
do  right  towards  God  nor  their  husbands.  To  be  acted  per- 
sonally by  six  persons." 

Schiitz's  long  life  was  productive  of  numerous  compositions 
His  chief  works  are  in  the  sacred  dramatic  style.  He  com- 
posed music  to  the  Passion  of  Christ  as  recorded  by  the  Four 
Evangelists,  to  the  Seven  Last  Words,  and  to  the  Resurrection. 
This  music  is  decidedly  in  advance  of  all  previous  masters  ; 
Schiitz,  in  a  word,  gave  the  sacred  cantata  its  leading  modern 
characteristics.  The  old-fashioned,  monotonous  psalmody  or 
intoning  disappeared,  and  was  replaced  by  the  modern  recita- 
tive and  arioso  style.  In  the  four  Passions,  however,  Schiitz 
did  not  make  use  of  the  recitative ;  the  chief  excellence  of 
these  works  is  due  to  the  impressive  dramatic  character  of  the 
choruses.  In  his  work  entitled  "  Saul,  Saul,  was  verfolgst  du 


GERMAN   OPERA  AT   HAMBURG  189 

mich  ? "  and  of  which  the  theme  is  the  conversion  of  Saul 
by  the  voice  from  heaven,  Schiitz  has  succeeded  in  represent- 
ing the  scene  with  remarkable  power  without  the  aid  of  visible 
means,  but  only  by  musical  tones,  through  the  combined 
voices  and  instruments.  Schiitz  is  the  direct  forerunner  of 
Bach  and  Handel  in  these  forms  of  the  oratorio  and  passion 
music.  Other  German  masters  of  his  time  who  contributed  to 
the  growth  of  a  new  national  style  of  dramatic  sacred  music 
were  Johann  Hermann  Schein,  Johann  Rosenmuller,  Andreas 
Hammerschmidt,  and  Heinrich  Albert.  The  last-named  master, 
the  nephew  of  Schtitz,  was  the  author  and  composer  of  numer- 
ous airs  or  songs. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

INSTRUMENTS  AND  INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC 

Instrumental  music  is  the  most  recently  developed  branch 
of  the  art.  Previous  to  the  foundation  of  the  opera  it  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  simple  pieces  for  the  organ,  clavichord,  viola, 
and  lute.  The  ancients  had  no  purely  instrumental  music 
worthy  of  the  name.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  minstrels 
and  others  practised  it  incidentally  in  accompanying  their 
songs  and  dances,  but  it  had  no  character  of  its  own,  and 
was  almost  entirely  subordinate  to  the  vocal  parts.  The 
earliest  instrumental  pieces  were,  for  the  most  part,  mere 
copies  of  the  vocal  airs,  in  unison  or  in  the  octave.  During 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  musical  instruments,  like 
the  organ,  clavichord,  lute,  and  viola  and  other  bowed  instru- 
ments, were  greatly  improved,  and  the  ground  was  prepared 
for  the  future  orchestra,  which,  however,  was  not  a  well- 
organized  combination  of  instruments  before  the  time  of 
Monteverde  and  Carissimi. 

Develop-  The  organ  is  the  most  important  of  ancient  instruments. 

ment  of  the  yjQ  Qwe  jts  orjgm  to  the  hydraulos,  or  water  organ,  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  which  probably  sprang  from  the  syrinx,  or 
Pan's  pipe.  The  real  construction  of  the  water  organ  is  not 
accurately  known,  yet  undoubtedly  it  consisted  of  a  row  of 
pipes  placed  in  the  holes  of  a  wind  chest  partly  filled  with 
water.  By  forcing  more  water  into  the  chest  the  air  was 
compressed,  and  thus  the  pipes  were  set  in  vibration  under 
the  control  of  the  player,  who  operated  on  the  keyboard. 

The  water  organ  was  superseded  by  the  organ  with  a  wind 
chest  and  with  bellows  in  place  of  water ;  but  exactly  when 
this  great  improvement  was  made  is  not  certain.  In  the 

190 


INSTRUMENTS  AND 'INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     191 

fourth  century  there  were  two  small  wind  organs  in  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem.  Organs  with  bellows  were  used  earliest 
.in  the  East,  especially  at  Constantinople,  in  the  time  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire.  They  were  introduced  into  the  Latin 
Church  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  century.  In  756  Pepin 
received  an  organ  from  the  Byzantine  Emperor,  Constantine 
Copronymus.  Charlemagne  in  8 12  received  an  organ  from  the 
East,  which  was  placed  in  the  cathedral  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
In  the  ninth  century  organs  were  used  in  Venice,  Germany, 
and  England.  An  organ  was  built  in  the  church  at  Winches- 
ter in  the  tenth  century,  which  had  four  hundred  pipes  and 
twenty-six  bellows,  and  required  seventy  lusty  men  to  blow  it. 
Two  organists  played  at  the  same  time.  There  were  only  ten 
keys  ;  for  every  key,  therefore,  forty  pipes  sounded  together, 
producing  the  effect  of  a  mixture.  In  these  early  organs  we 
find  this  so-called  mixture,  or  harmonic  tones,  agreeing  with 
and  fortifying  the  ground  tone  by  means  of  smaller  pipes, 
tuned  in  fifths,  octaves,  and  thirds.  This  combination  was 
founded  on  an  acoustical  principle  then  unknown.  Organ 
pipes  have  few  overtones,  and  sound  dull  without  the  artifi- 
cial production  of  the  overtones  by  additional  pipes.  The 
mixtures,  when  properly  used,  give  power  and  brilliancy  to 
the  organ  tone.  In  early  times,  however,  the  art  of  combin- 
ing mixtures  was  crude,  and  they  are  said  to  have  shrieked 
shrill  and  loud. 

These  old  organs  consisted  of  a  single  row  of  pipes.  For  The  keys 
some  time  the  keyboard  had  a  very  limited  compass  of  twelve 
or  thirteen  keys,  from  B  to  e  or  f  in  diatonic  order,  according 
to  the  Dorian  scale.  The  keys  were  a  foot  long  and  three 
or  four  inches  wide,  and  required  the  fists  and  elbows  in 
playing.  The  bellows  were  small  and  numerous,  like  ordinary 
blacksmith's  bellows ;  the  intonation  must  have  been  very 
inaccurate.  Subsequently  a  second  keyboard,  with  separate 
pipes  for  the  mixture,  was  introduced.  The  keyboard  of  the 
largest  pipes  was  called  the  principal  or  prestant ;  the  second 


192  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

keyboard  of  mixture  pipes  was  called  the  hintersatz.  In  1361 
Nicholas  Faber  built  an  organ  for  the  cathedral  at  Halber- 
stadt,  which  had  three  keyboards. 

Pedal  organ  A  pedal  organ  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  van  Os, 
about  1 1 20,  which  proves  that  Bernhard  the  German,  of 
Venice  (1470),  was  not  the  inventor  of  the  pedal  organ,  as 
has  been  asserted.  At  first  the  pedals  were  attached  by  ropes 
to  the  manual  keys,  and  were  only  eight  in  number  —  from 
B  to  b.  Later  large  bass  pipes  were  added  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  an  independent  pedal,  as  nowadays.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  compass  of  the  organ  was  extended  to  more  than 
two  chromatic  octaves.  In  the  fifteenth  century  great  improve- 
ments were  made  in  organ  building.  The  compass  now  em- 
braced three  chromatic  octaves.  The  keys  were  made  smaller, 
so  that  the  fingers  could  be  used  in  playing,  and  finally  the 
seventh  and  octave  could  be  spanned  by  the  hand.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  the  reed  and  stopped  pipes  were  added  to 
the  diapason,  and  this  enriched  the  tone  color  and  gave  an 
opportunity  to  contrast  stops.  Organ  building  continued  to 
progress  during  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth 
centuries  until  it  has  reached  an  ideal  point  as  regards  sub- 
limity, grandeur,  and  power  of  the  full  organ  with  its  mighty 
pedal  bass.  In  the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel  such  organs 
were  common.  Since  then  the  organ  has  been  greatly  improved 
in  action,  mechanism,  and  tone  variety ;  new  solo  stops  have 
been  added,  and  the  art  of  organ  building  has  greatly 
advanced ;  yet  the  organ  in  the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel 
was  a  mighty  instrument,  and  the  true  organ  style  reached 
its  culmination  in  their  works. 

Organists  Organ  building  and  organ  playing  reacted  on  each  other 

musicrgan  during  the  many  centuries  of  growth,  but  it  is  not  until  the 
fourteenth  century  that  the  names  of  organists  are  known. 
We  read  of  Francesco  Landino,  the  blind  organist  of  Florence, 
who  was  crowned  by  the  Doge  of  Venice  in  1364  as  poet  and 
masterly  organist.  Owing  to  the  mechanical  drawbacks  and 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     193 

limited  compass  of  the  instrument  at  that  time,  organ  playing 
had  only  a  very  limited  scope,  and  hardly  deserves  the  name 
of  "  masterly."  In  the  fifteenth  century  Bernhard  the  German 
was  distinguished  as  organist.  No  examples  of  his  music 
are  extant.  Antonio  Squarcialuppi  was  a  famous  Florentine 
organist  who  died  in  1475. 

The  oldest  organ  pieces  preserved  are  by  Conrad  Paumann  Conrad 
of  Nuremberg,  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,     aumann 
who  was  blind  from  birth.    He  was  not  only  a  master  of  the 
organ,  but  played  the  zither,  harp,  flute,  violin,  and  lute.    He 
was  the  inventor  of  the  so-called  lute  tablature  —  a  system  of 
notation.    The  organ  pieces  of  Paumann  are  commonly  in  two- 
part  simple  counterpoint.    They  have  a  flowing,  instrumental 
style,  and  do  not  suggest  vocal  music,  but  they  are  crude. 

Paul  Hofhaimer  (1459-1537)  was  a  learned  organist  and 
composer,  and  trained  numerous  pupils.  Germany  preceded 
Italy  in  organ  playing,  and  in  composing  for  that  instrument. 
The  oldest  organ  pieces  were  published  by  Schlick  in  1512, 
and  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  organ  compositions 
were  frequently  printed.  Jacob  Buus,  the  famous  Nether- 
land  organist,  published  two  books  of  ricercari ;  about  the 
same  time  Willaert  and  De  Rore  published  original  fantasie 
e  ricercari.  Organ  playing  and  composition  were  cultivated 
particularly  by  the  Venetian  masters  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  gave  an  impetus  to  this  branch  of  art.  Their  pieces  were 
the  germ  of  the  highly  developed  form  and  style  which  reached 
an  ideal  height  in  the  great  organ  works  of  Sebastian  Bach. 

The  names  of  the  Venetian  organ  pieces  were  capriccio, 
contrapunto,  canzone,  toccata,  preludium,  ricercare,  etc.  The 
principal  Venetian  organ  masters  were  Willaert,  De  Rore, 
Bell'  Haver,  Guammi,  Parabosco,  Merulo,  Andrea,  and  Gio- 
vanni Gabrieli. 

Claudio  Merulo  was  the  first  organist  of  his  time  ;  his  toe-  Claudio 
catas  are  especially  noted.    The  word  "  toccata  "  is  derived 
from  toccare  (to  touch),  and  suggests  the  idea  of  a  piece  for  a 


194 


THE  HISTORY  OF   MUSIC 


keyed  instrument.  The  toccata  is  a  brilliant  piece,  in  which 
running  passages  alternate  with  contrapuntal  figures  in  free 
style,  as  in  a  fantasia.  The  melody  is  not  prominent.  It  does 
not  suggest  the  vocal  style,  as  is  the  case  with  the  canzone. 
Merulo's  toccatas  were  published  in  the  years  1598  and  1604. 
The  preludium  and  fantasia  are  very  much  like  the  toccata  in 
form  and  style.  The  contrapunto  and  canzone  were  fugal  in 
treatment.  The  ricercare  in  those  days  was  a  fantasia-like  pre- 
lude, which  in  Bach's  time  became  an  elaborate  master  fugue. 
Frescobaldi  The  height  of  Italian  organ  music  was  represented  by 
Girolamo  Frescobaldi,  born  1591,  whose  complete  works  have 
been  preserved.  He  is  said  to  have  studied  in  the  Nether- 
lands, where  organ  playing  stood  on  a  high  plane.  Fresco- 
baldi was  organist  at  St.  Peter's  in  Rome.  It  is  said  that 
thirty  thousand  people  once  assembled  there  to  hear  him  play. 
He  had  numerous  pupils  from  various  countries,  including 
Froberger  and  Kerl,  the  famous  German  organists.  He  im- 
proved the  various  forms  of  organ  music,  —  the  prelude  and 
fugue,  fantasia,  toccata,  etc.  He  gave  a  definite  form  to  the 
organ  fugue,  which  reached  ideal  perfection  in  the  great  works 
of  Bach.  At  Rome  he  was  followed  by  Bernardo  Pasquini,  who 
stands  next  to  Frescobaldi  as  an  Italian  organ  master. 

Jan  Pieters  Sweelinck  was  a  celebrated  organist  in  Amster- 
dam (1562-1621).  Among  his  numerous  pupils  were  several 
German  organists,  of  whom  Samuel  Scheidt  was  the  most 
noted. 

The  Germans  ultimately  excelled  the  Italians  as  organists. 
They  gradually  developed  organ  style  and  technic  during  the 
seventeenth  century  to  the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel.  The 
most  prominent  of  these  organists  were  Froberger,  Kerl, 
Pachelbel,  Reinken,  and  Buxtehude.  The  latter  was  born  in 
1669,  and  died  in  1707.  He  was  the  model  of  the  young 
Sebastian  Bach,  who  imitated  his  style  in  his  early  organ 
composition.  These  German  masters  developed  the  forms 
which  their  Italian  predecessors  originated,  —  the  fantasia, 


Supremacy 
of  German 
organists 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     195 

toccata,  fugue,  etc.  They  were  thorough  masters  of  the  fugal 
style.  We  owe  to  them  the  art  of  choral  variations  (Choral- 
vorspiele)  for  the  organ,  in  which  the  German  chorals  are 
used  as  themes  for  elaborate  contrapuntal  treatment.  Sebas- 
tian Bach  is  the  highest  representative  of  this  style. 

The  origin  of  keyed  string  instruments  —  the  clavichord,  Keyed 
spinet,  harpsichord,  and  virginal  —  may  be  traced  back  to  g^mJnts 
the  old  monochord  and  psalter  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
original  monochord  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Pythag- 
oras in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  though,  according  to  Lepsius, 
its  principle  was  used  twenty-four  hundred  years  before  by 
the  Egyptians.  It  was  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  measure 
the  relations  of  the  intervals  of  sound,  and  consisted  of  a 
sounding  board  on  which  was  stretched  a  single  string,  with 
a  shifting  bridge.  In  the  Middle  Ages  a  number  of  strings 
were  used.  It  was  found  more  convenient  to  dispense  with 
the  shifting  bridges,  and  at  the  points  of  division  to  adjust 
fixed  bridges,  raised  by  an  apparatus  resembling  the  keys  of 
the  organ,  to  press  the  strings  and  produce  the  required 
tones.  This  led  ultimately  to  the  invention  of  the  clavichord, 
which,  together  with  the  spinet,  played  a  great  role  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  before  the  invention 
of  the  pianoforte. 

In  M.  Steinert's  admirable  treatise  on  "  Keyed  and  Stringed  Clavichord 
Instruments"  (published  by  C.  F.  Tretbar,  New  York)  there 
is  a  picture  of  a  clavichord  of  the  fifteenth  century  (see 
page  15).  This  instrument  looks  like  a  small  square  piano. 
It  has  no  legs,  and  is  placed  on  a  table  when  played  upon.  It 
can  be  easily  carried  about.  Mr.  Steinert  says,  "  In  this 
instrument  a  small  bit  of  brass,  called  a  tangent,  is  fastened 
to  the  back  end  of  the  key,  and,  when  raised  by  pressing  the 
key,  strikes  the  string  and  divides  it,  thus  producing  at  the 
same  time  tone  and  pitch.  This  instrument  has  more  keys 
than  strings,  and  three  different  tones  are  produced  upon  each 
set  of  strings ;  a  system  which  is  called  in  German  gebunden, 


196  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  in  English,  fretted."  In  the  eighteenth  century  Faber 
constructed  clavichords  which  provided  the  semitones  with 
their  own  strings,  and  were  called  bundfrei  (string-free), 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  gebunden  or  fretted  system. 
Hitherto  the  instrument  had  had  strings  for  the  lower  or  nat- 
ural tones,  the  semitones  on  the  upper  keys  being  tangents 
directed  toward  the  strings  of  the  lower.  Thus  C$  was 
obtained  by  striking  the  C  string  at  a  shorter  length. 

The  clavichord  was  the  favorite  instrument  of  Sebastian 
Bach.    His  great  work,  forty-eight  preludes  and  fugues,  is 
named  the  "  Well-Tempered  Clavichord."    Mozart  is  said  to 
have  used  the  clavichord  in  composing  his  "  Magic  Flute." 
Spinet,  From  the  psaltery  sprang  the  spinet,  also  called  harpsichord 

chord  or  an<^  virginal.  The  ancient  psaltery,  in  triangular,  square, 
virginal  curved,  or  harplike  form,  was  carried  by  means  of  a  ribbon 
round  the  neck,  or  when  used,  was  placed  on  some  piece  of 
furniture.  Its  strings  were  operated  by  means  of  a  plectrum, 
fastened  by  rings  to  the  hand  of  the  performer.  It  was  the 
prototype  of  the  spinet.  It  is  not  absolutely  known  when 
either  the  spinet  or  clavichord  was  invented,  but  it  is  sur- 
mised that  they  came  into  use  during  the  second  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

The  spinet  has  the  same  shape  as  the  clavichord,  but  it 
uses  plectra,  or  jacks,  instead  of  tangents.  "  The  jack  action 
is  derived  from  the  psaltery  plectrum.  All  instruments  of  the 
spinet,  harpsichord,  virginal,  and  clavicembalo  family  were 
on  the  plectrum  principle.  The  strings  were  set  in  vibration 
by  points  of  a  quill  or  hard  leather,  elevated  on  wooden 
uprights,  known  as  jacks,  and  twitching  or  plucking  them  as 
the  depression  of  the  keys  caused  the  points  to  pass  upward." 
Shakespeare  refers  to  the  spinet  in  Sonnet  128  : 

How  oft,  when  thou,  my  music,  music  play'st 
Upon  that  blessed  wood  whose  motion  sounds 
With  thy  sweet  fingers,  when  thou  gently  sway'st 
The  wiry  concord  that  mine  ear  confounds, 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     197 

Do  I  envy  those  jacks  that  nimble  leap 

To  kiss  the  tender  inward  of  thy  hand, 

Whilst  my  poor  lips,  which  should  that  harvest  reap, 

At  the  wood's  boldness  by  thee  blushing  stand ! 

There  were  three  different  shapes  of  jack  instruments 
common  in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, —  the  spinet,  or  virginal,  of  oblong  rectangular  form ; 
the  harpsichord,  of  trapeze  form  ;  and  the  upright  harpsichord, 
or  clavicytherium.  The  harpsichord  resembled  the  modern 
grand  piano  in  shape.  It  had  a  compass  of  four  to  five  octaves. 
The  number  of  separate  strings  to  each  key  varied  from  one 
to  four,  and  sometimes  included  one  tuned  an  octave  or  two 
above  the  others.  Some  harpsichords  had  two  separate  key- 
boards, one  for  soft  effects,  the  other  for  loud.  These  large 
harpsichords  were  the  most  powerful  of  the  jack  instruments. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  harpsichord  was  used  in  the 
orchestra  for  dramatic  accompaniment,  especially  in  recita- 
tives, and  in  filling  out  the  harmonies  of  the  orchestra.  The 
accompanist  played  from  a  figured  bass.  The  conductor  usu- 
ally directed  from  his  seat  at  a  harpsichord  in  front,  while 
the  accompanist  sat  at  a  harpsichord  behind  the  players.  The 
harpsichord  had  a  stronger  and  more  brilliant  tone  than  the 
clavichord,  but  was  inferior  to  it  in  producing  gradations  of 
tone, — crescendo,  diminuendo,  etc.  In  power  of  expression 
the  clavichord  was  superior.  It  had  a  sweet,  silvery  quality 
of  tone,  charmingly  hesitating  and  tremulous. 

It  is  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  piano  was  derived  chiefly  Pianoforte 
from  the  jack  or  tangent  instruments.  The  dulcimer  is  the 
prototype  of  the  piano,  just  as  the  monochord  is  that  of  the 
clavichord,  and  the  psaltery  of  the  spinet  and  harpsichord. 
The  dulcimer  and  psaltery  were  nearly  alike.  They  differed 
only  in  the  manner  of  playing  them.  The  strings  of  the 
psaltery  were  set  in  vibration  by  means  of  a  plectrum, 
whereas  the  strings  of  the  dulcimer  were  struck  by  small 
hammers  held  in  the  hands  of  the  performer.  The  dynamic 


198  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

effects  of  loud  and  soft  could  be  produced  by  means  of  ham- 
mers, which  was  not  possible  with  the  plectrum  or  jack,  and 
this  led  to  the  invention  of  a  keyboard  applied  to  the  dulcimer. 
The  new  instrument,  known  since  1711,  was  called  by  its  in- 
ventor pianoforte,  and  has  retained  this  name  ever  since.  The 
Germans  called  it  hammerclavier.  The  inventor  was  Cristo- 
fori,  born  in  1653  at  Parma.  Sebastian  Bach  in  1737,  and 
Mozart  in  1777,  acknowledged  the  value  of  the  invention  of 
the  pianoforte,  but  it  was  not  until  toward  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  the  pianoforte  fairly  superseded 
the  older  class  of  keyed  instruments.  Haydn,  Mozart,  and 
Beethoven  wrote  for  the  piano,  although  they  often  played  on 
the  clavichord  in  their  younger  days.  With  Beethoven  the 
pianoforte  began  its  modern  career.  In  his  time  the  grand 
piano  had  acquired  its  prominent  features,  though  it  has  been 
greatly  improved  since.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between 
Beethoven's  Broadwood  grand  and  the  modern  grand. 
Clavichord  The  earliest  school  of  clavichord  players  and  composers 
was  the  English,  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  I  have 
already  given  an  account  of  Byrd,  Dr.  Bull,  Orlando  Gibbons, 
and  others.  Great  progress  was  made  by  the  French  masters 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Lully  wrote 
some  pleasing  compositions  for  the  clavichord,  and  the  Coup- 
erin  family  was  particularly  distinguished  as  clavichord  com- 
posers. There  were  three  brothers,  Louis,  Francois,  and 
Charles,  but  Francois  Couperin,  the  son  of  Charles,  excelled 
them  all.  He  was  born  in  Paris  in  1668  and  died  in  1733. 
The  style  of  these  French  composers  is  distinguished  for  its 
elegance,  finish,  and  expression.  We  owe  many  graceful  adorn- 
ments of  style  to  them,  but  their  use  of  turns,  grace  notes, 
and  trills  is  excessive.  It  reminds  us  of  the  wigs,  queues,  and 
shoe  buckles  of  the  ancien  regime.  These  composers  gave 
romantic  and  fanciful  titles  to  their  pieces.  They  are  the  first 
so-called  programme  composers.  Some  of  the  titles  are  "  La 
Favorite,"  "  La  T6nebreuse,"  "  La  Bandoline,"  "  La  Bersan," 


INSTRUMENTS  AND  INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     199 

"  Le  Reveil-Matin,"  "  Les  Papillons,"  etc.  Another  French 
clavichordist  of  the  same  school  was  Chambonnieres  (1620— 
1670),  also  the  famous  dramatic  composer,  Rameau,  who  ex- 
celled even  Couperin.  Among  his  charming  pieces  may  be 
mentioned  his  "Deux  Minuets,"  " L'Egyptienne,"  "La  Poule," 
"  La  Timide,"  "  Musette  en  Rondeau,"  etc. 

Clavichord  music  was  cultivated  in  Italy  and  Germany 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  The  organists  were  generally 
skillful  performers  on  this  instrument.  Froberger  and  Muffat, 
in  Germany,  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  his  son  Domenico, 
in  Italy,  were  famous  clavichordists. 

In  the  early  stages  of  clavichord  playing  the  application  of  Systems  of 
the  fingers  to  the  keyboard  was  singularly  restricted.    We  finsenng 
read  that  in  1571  the  following  fingering  was  used  for  the 

scale  of  F  major: 

fgabcdefga  bagfedc 

Right  hand   1212121212  3212121 

Left  hand    3210321032  1212123 

Praetorius  says  it  does  not  matter  at  all  what  kind  of 
fingering  is  used,  and  we  may  even  use  the  nose  if  only  we 
make  everything  sound  clear  and  pleasing  to  the  ear.  Mat- 
theson  as  late  as  1735  used  only  four  fingers  in  the  scale 
of  C  major.  He  said  it  does  not  matter  whether  we  use 
two,  three,  four,  or  five  fingers  in  playing.  What  the  player 
should  do  with  his  thumbs  remained  unsettled  before  the 
time  of  Scarlatti  and  Bach.  Emanuel  Bach  declared  that  the 
thumbs  of  our  forefathers  seemed  often  to  be  in  the  way ; 
they  had  too  many  fingers  apparently. 

The  clavier  suite  was  cultivated  particularly  by  the  French  The  clavier 
masters  of    the    seventeenth  and   eighteenth   centuries.     It  sult< 
consists  of  a  series  of  dance  movements,  generally  all  in  one 
key,  which  contrast  with  each  other  more  or  less  in  rhythm 
and  tempo.    Most  of  the  dances  which  were  thus  applied  to 
the  clavichord  have  long  since  become  obsolete.    Originally 
they  were  dances  of  the  court  or  of  the  people.    The  favorite 


200  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

dances  were  the  allemande,  bourree,  anglaise,  bransle, 
courante,  gavotte,  hornpipe,  chaconne,  giga  (or  gigue), 
minuet,  sarabande,  passacaglia,  passepied,  rigadon,  polo- 
naise, siciliano,  etc.  It  was  very  natural  to  select  a  number 
of  these  dances  and  group  them  together  as  a  series  or  suite 
of  pieces.  The  suite  form  was  used  also  in  chamber  and 
orchestral  music  even  before  its  application  to  the  clavichord. 
Some  of  the  suites  had  an  opening  movement  not  in  dance 
form,  —  an  overture,  prelude,  toccata,  etc.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  English  suites  of  Bach.  The  partita  was  a  kind  of 
suite  not  composed  exclusively  of  dances.  The  suite  was 
sometimes  called  the  sonata  da  camera  and  sonata  del  balleti, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  sonata  da  chiesa,  or  sonata  in  general. 
The  modern  sonata  is  not  derived  from  the  suite  directly. 
The  name  "sonata,"  now  of  such  definite  meaning,  was  at 
first  represented  by  short  Venetian  organ  pieces.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  Covelli,  the  Italian  violinist,  composed 
sonatas  for  violins  and  bass  in  several  movements.  The  fugal 
style  predominated,  though  dances  were  introduced.  Purcell 
and  Biber  composed  similar  sonatas.  The  first  application  of 
the  name  to  a  solo  for  clavier  was  made  by  Johann  Kuhnau, 
cantor  of  the  St.  Thomas  School  at  Leipzig  (1701-1722). 

One  of  the  greatest  masters  of  the  clavichord  was  Domenico 
Scarlatti  (1683-1757).  He  carried  clavier  technic  to  a  high 
point  of  brilliancy,  and  he  was  surpassed  only  by  Emanuel 
and  Sebastian  Bach.  Scarlatti's  so-called  sonatas  are  short, 
difficult,  single  movements,  which  resemble  the  modern  etude 
in  form  rather  than  the  sonata,  —  they  are  homophonous  in 
style  rather  than  fugal.  One  of  his  most  famous  compositions 
is  the  "  Cat's  Fugue,"  which  is  often  played  nowadays  in  the 
concert  room.  I  shall  consider  Emanuel  and  Sebastian  Bach 
as  clavichord  masters  in  later  chapters. 

Bowed  The  origin  of  the  bowed  stringed  instruments  is  uncertain. 

ins'tru*          They  were  not  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and   Romans. 

ments  Nero  did  not  play  the  fiddle  at  the  burning  of  Rome.    Bowed 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     20 1 

instruments  were  in  use  in  very  ancient  times  in  the  East. 
The  rebab  and  ravanastram  were  ancient  Eastern  bowed 
instruments.  The  crwth,  or  crowd,  is  one  of  the  oldest  bowed 
stringed  instruments,  and  it  is  said  to  have  come  from  India. 
It  was  used  in  Wales  long  before  the  thirteenth  century. 
Similar  to  the  crwth  were  the  rebec,  geige,  rotte,  etc.  In 
the  time  of  the  troubadours  an  instrument  appeared  in 
southern  France  called  the  vielle,  or  viola.  It  was  a  hurdy- 
gurdy  and  viol  in  one,  for  the  same  instrument  was  played 
by  plucking  or  bowing  the  strings,  and  sometimes  by  rubbing 
them  with  a  wheel.  Later  the  viola  became  a  separate  bowed 
instrument.  In  the  fifteenth  century  viols  were  made  in  Viola  da 
different  sizes  to  correspond  with  the  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  gam  a 
and  bass  voices.  There  were  two  classes  of  viols,  —  viola 
da  gamba  and  viola  da  braccio.  In  the  course  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  art  of  viola  making  advanced  greatly  under 
masters  like  Gasparo  di  Salo  and  Andrea  Amati.  During 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  there  were  six  kinds  of 
viola  da  gamba  (leg  viol),  three  for  the  bass,  and  one  each  for 
tenor,  alto,  and  soprano,  all  with  frets  on  the  finger  board. 
The  most  common  viola  da  gamba  was  the  tenor,  from  which 
the  modern  violoncello  was  derived.  It  had  five,  six,  or  seven 
strings,  tuned  as  follows  : 


There  were  also  seven  kinds  of  viola  da  braccio  (arm  viol), 
named  great  quint  bass,  bass,  and  tenor,  and  four  smaller  Viola  da 
ones.    Our  modern  violin  is  derived  from  the  largest  of  these     racci 
four  smaller  instruments.    It  bore   several  names   (descant- 
viol,  violetta,  rebecchino,  violino).    The  smallest  of  the  violas 
was  called  pocchetto,  and  had  three  strings,  tuned  as  follows : 

.£2-      Of         _«3_ 


202  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Other  instruments  belonging  to  the  class  of  the  viola 
da  gamba  were  the  viola  bastarda,  lira  da  gamba  (a  large 
bass  instrument  with  twelve  to  fourteen  strings)  lira  bar- 
barina,  and  viola  di  bordone,  or  baryton.  The  latter  had  five 
to  seven  strings  for  the  bow  to  play  upon,  and  as  many  as 
twenty-four  metal  strings  under  the  neck,  played  on  by  the 
thumb,  "  pizzicato."  Haydn  composed  a  large  number  of 
pieces  for  the  baryton,  as  it  was  the  favorite  instrument  of 
his  patron,  Prince  Esterhazy. 

Viola  The  viola  d'amore,  or  viole  d'amour  (love  viol),  is  one  of 
the  best  instruments  of  its  class,  and  has  a  delicate,  silvery 
quality  of  tone.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the  modern  viola. 
"  It  has  seven  catgut  strings,  the  three  lowest  of  which,  like 
the  C  and  G  strings  of  the  viola,  are  wound  with  silver  wire. 
Below  the  neck  and  passing  through  the  bridge,  are  seven 
more  strings  of  metal,  tuned  in  unison  with  the  others,  so  as 
to  vibrate  sympathetically  with  them,  giving  a  second  reso- 
nance to  the  tone,  full  of  sweetness  and  mystery."  l  The 
modern  way  of  tuning  the  instrument  is  in  thirds  and  fourths, 
as  follows  :  _o „ 

I 


The  viola  pomposa  was  a  large  viola  invented  by  Sebastian 
Bach,  wherewith  to  execute  his  difficult  basses,  but  it  was 
discarded  for  the  violoncello,  and  passed  out  of  use. 
Violin  The  art  of  violin  and  viola  making  was  greatly  advanced  in 

the  sixteenth  century  under  Gasparo  di  Salo,  Maggini,  and 
others  at  Brescia.  Some  of  their  instruments  are  highly 
prized  nowadays.  Ole  Bull's  favorite  solo  violin  was  a  Gasparo 
di  Salo.  De  Be"riot  played  on  a  Maggini.  The  double  basses 
of  Maggini  are  still  valued  for  practical  use.  However,  the 
perfect  model  was  not  yet  evolved  ;  it  required  the  life  work 

1  See  Berlioz,  Instrumentation,  IV. 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     203 

of  successive  men  of  genius  to  bring  about  this  result.  The 
early  Italian  violins  are  too  small,  the  violas  are  too  large. 
Cremona  was  destined  to  become  the  center  of  this  wonderful 
evolution,  under  the  famous  Amati,  Guarneri,  and  Stradivari 
makers. 

The  Amati  family  are  generally  considered  as  the  founders  The  Amati 
of  the  Cremona  school.  Andrea,  the  eldest  (1520-1577),  family 
may  have  been  a  pupil  of  Di  Salo.  His  instruments  have 
a  clear  and  silvery  tone,  but  are  not  powerful,  owing  to  their 
small  size.  His  sons  Antonio  and  Geronimo  worked  much  in 
their  father's  style.  Nicolo  (1596-1684),  son  of  Geronimo, 
was  the  last  and  most  eminent  of  the  Amati  family.  He 
improved  the  model ;  the  proportions  of  the  instrument  are 
better  as  regards  thickness  of  wood  and  elevation  of  back 
and  belly.  The  tone,  therefore,  is  stronger  and  equally  pure 
and  clear  in  comparison  with  the  earlier  violins.  He  made 
also  some  larger  violins,  called  grand  Amatis,  which  are 
highly  prized  as  well  as  priced. 

"The  violins  of  the  Amati,"  says  Paul  David,  "are  the 
link  between  the  Brescia  school  and  those  masters  who 
brought  the  art  of  violin  making  to  its  greatest  perfection, 
Antonio  Stradivari  and  Joseph  Guarneri.  The  tone  of  Di 
Sale's  and  Maggini's  violins  is  powerful,  but  has  a  veiled 
character."  Nicolo  Amati's  violins  have  a  clearer  tone,  but 
smaller.  Their  successors  perfected  the  model  and  tone  of 
the  instrument,  and  since  their  day  there  have  been  no 
improvements,  even  in  trifling  details.  The  Stradivari  violins 
are  still  the  perfect  model. 

The  Guarneri  family  of  violin   makers  were  (i)  Andrea,   The  Guar- 
who  worked  with  Stradivari  in  the  workshop  of  Nicolo  Amati,  neri  family 
and  developed  an  entirely  original  style  from  his  master's 
model ;    (2)  Giuseppe,  son  of  Andrea,  who  also  developed  a 
style  of  his  own ;   (3)  Pietro,  likewise  a  son  of  Andrea,  com- 
monly   called    Peter   of    Cremona,    whose    instruments    are 
entirely  different   from    those    of   his   father   and    brother; 


204 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Antonio 
Stradivari 


Perfection 
of  the  bow 


(4)  Pietro,  known  as  Peter  of  Venice,  grandson  of  Andrea, 
whose  violins  have  a  rich,  pure  tone ;  (5)  Giuseppe  (Joseph), 
a  nephew  of  Andrea,  called  del  Gesu,  from  the  I.  H.  S. 
added  to  his  labels.  He  is  the  greatest  maker  of  his  family, 
and  his  only  rival  is  Antonio  Stradivari.  Paganini's  favorite 
instrument  was  a  Joseph  Guarneri,  which  is  now  in  the 
museum  at  Genoa.  The  value  of  the  best  Joseph  violins  is 
probably  twenty-five  hundred  dollars  or  more. 

Antonio  Stradivari  (1649—1737),  the  greatest  of  violin 
makers,  was  a  pupil  of  Nicolo  Amati.  During  his  long  life  he 
gradually  improved  the  instrument  in  all  its  details.  His 
productivity  was  remarkable ;  more  than  a  thousand  of  his 
later  instruments  are  still  in  existence.  He  also  made  a  large 
number  of  violas,  cellos,  and  basses,  besides  lutes,  guitars, 
mandolins,  theorbos,  etc.  His  best  violins  excel  all  others 
in  nobility  and  fullness  of  tone,  and  in  beauty  and  durability. 
His  perfect  model  has  been  copied  by  most  violin  makers 
to  the  present  day ;  even  the  cheap  fiddles  we  see  in  shop 
windows  are  copies  of  the  Stradivari  model.  The  superiority 
of  the  Cremona  violins  -was  not  fully  appreciated  before  the 
nineteenth  century,  if  we  judge  by  the  low  prices  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  A  London  dealer  was  not  able  to  dispose  of 
his  Strads  at  the  insignificant  price  of  four  pounds  apiece ! 
Now  the  best  sometimes  bring  no  less  than  ten  thousand 
dollars. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  Stradivari  and  the  other  great 
makers  who  perfected  the  violin  should  not  have  devoted  their 
genius  to  the  perfection  of  the  bow,  which  is  just  as  impor- 
tant as  the  instrument  itself ;  for  without  the  perfect  bow 
the  highest  technic,  beauty  of  tone,  and  musical  expression 
cannot  be  attained.  It  was  reserved  for  Francois  Tourte 
(1747-1835)  to  perfect  the  bow.  The  picture  of  the  violin 
bow  in  Leopold  Mozart's  "violin  school"  gives  one  a  vivid 
idea  of  the  clumsy  character  of  the  old  bow.  Before  Tourte's 
time  the  modern  effects  of  staccato  were  quite  impossible, 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     205 

and  the  dynamic  effects  of  piano,  forte,  crescendo,  and  diminu- 
endo were  very  limited.  There  must  have  been  a  roughness 
in  tone  and  execution  we  should  hardly  tolerate  nowadays. 
Tourte's  improvements  in  the  bow  were  made  after  1775. 
Notwithstanding  the  imperfect  bow  prior  to  this  date,  famous 
violinists  had  arisen  in  Italy  and  Germany,  who  advanced  the 
art  of  violin  playing  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  great  violinists  like  Viotti,  Paganini,  and  others 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  who  availed  themselves  of  the 
perfected  bow,  and  were  thus  able  to  carry  virtuosity  to  a 
great  height. 

Although  violin  playing  was  practised  in  a  rude  manner  as  Violin  mas- 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  * 
the  sixteenth  century  that  the  domination  of  the  lute  was 
broken  down.  The  earliest  known  composition  for  solo  violin 
is  a  Romanesca  by  Marini,  published  in  1620.  A  marked 
improvement  in  violin  composition  was  shown  in  the  works  of 
Farina,  Merula,  and  Ucellini,  written  before  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  During  this  period  the  rudiments  of 
the  classical  violin  sonata  appeared.  Its  form  consisted  of 
alternate  slow  and  quick  movements.  Among  the  earliest  are 
the  sonatas  of  Fontana  and  Neri.  The  so-called  sinfonia  and 
canzone,  of  similar  form,  were  merged  into  the  sonata  about 
1650,  and  sonata  was  henceforth  the  name  of  violin  compo- 
sitions with  several  movements.  Neri  made  the  distinction 
between  sonata  da  chiesa  (church  sonata)  and  sonata  da 
camara  (chamber  sonata).  The  former  was  in  three  or  four 
movements :  first,  a  slow  prelude  followed  by  an  allegro  in 
fugal  style  ;  second,  a  slow  movement ;  third,  a  brilliant  finale. 
The  sonata  da  camera  at  that  time  was  in  reality  a  suite  of 
dances,  —  allemande,  sarabande,  gigue,  etc.  The  first  dis- 
tinguished master  of  the  chamber  sonata  was  Vitali  (1644— 
1692).  He  was  followed  by  Torelli  (1657-1716),  who  origi- 
nated the  violin  concerto,  accompanied  by  string  orchestra. 
But  the  most  eminent  violin  master  of  the  seventeenth  century 


2O6 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Arcangelo 
Corelli 


Tartini 


was  Arcangelo  Corelli  (1653-1713).  He  improved  the  tech- 
nic  of  the  instrument,  and  gave  a  classical  style  to  the  art 
of  composition.  His  sonatas  for  one  or  more  violins  with 
bass  served  as  models  to  his  successors.  They  have  concise- 
ness and  logical  structure ;  his  harmonies  and  modulations 
are  in  good  taste ;  pathos,  expression,  and  vivacity  are  the 
main  characteristics  of  his  music.  He  did  not  use  the  highest 
positions  of  the  instrument.  He  was  looked  upon  as  the 
father  of  true  violin  playing  by  his  contemporaries  and  fol- 
lowers. The  violin  sonatas  by  Purcell  and  Biber,  the  German 
composer,  were  suggested  no  doubt  by  those  of  Corelli,  who 
is  rightly  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  classical  chamber 
style. 

The  Venetian  master  Vivaldi  (died  1743),  though  not  so 
eminent  as  Corelli,  exercised  a  decided  influence  on  the  further 
development  of  the  concerto  form.  He  gave  the  solo  violin 
part  more  brilliancy,  and  improved  the  orchestration.  Veracini 
(1685—1750),  the  Florentine  violinist,  was  distinguished  for 
his  execution  and  passionate  fire.  His  violin  sonatas  are 
noble  in  style  and  show  harmonic  and  melodic  originality.  He 
used  double  stops  and  improved  the  bowing.  He  had  a  strong 
influence  on  Tartini. 

Giuseppe  Tartini  (1692-1770),  the  greatest  violin  virtuoso 
before  Paganini,  was  not  only  one  of  the  most  remarkable  vio- 
linists who  ever  lived  but  a  distinguished  composer  and 
writer  on  musical  acoustical  effects.  He  had  a  great  com- 
mand of  the  finger  board  and  bow,  and  overcame  all  diffi- 
culties of  execution  with  apparent  ease.  He  had  a  fine  tone, 
perfect  intonation  in  double  stops,  and  his  trills  and  double 
trills  were  finished  and  brilliant.  He  played  with  deep  feeling 
and  expression.  He  used  a  longer  bow  than  Corelli,  and 
used  it  with  greater  skill  and  freedom.  He  was  a  remark- 
able teacher.  His  most  prominent  pupils  were  Nardini,  Bini, 
Graun,  Ferrari,  and  Manfredi.  As  a  composer  he  surpassed 
his  models,  Corelli  and  Vivaldi.  His  sonatas  and  concertos 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     207 

are  conceived  in  a  freer  and  larger  form  ;  his  melodies  are 
broader  and  more  expressive,  and  his  harmonies  and  modula- 
tions are  richer  and  more  varied ;  his  slow  movements  are 
passionate  and  emotional,  and  his  quick  movements  are  fiery 
and  characteristic,  being  impressed  with  his  own  peculiar  in- 
dividuality. In  this  respect  he  reminds  us  of  Paganini,  the 
most  extraordinary  virtuoso  who  ever  lived.  Tartini's  most  Tartini's 
famous  work  is  the  sonata  called  the  "  Devil's  Trill,"  which  g^j^s" 
holds  a  place  among  the  most  famous  violin  pieces  in  the  mod- 
ern repertory.  His  published  compositions  consist  of  over 
fifty  sonatas  and  eighteen  concertos  with  accompaniment  of 
the  string  orchestra.  Besides  these  there  exist  in  manuscript 
forty-eight  sonatas  and  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  con- 
certos. With  Tartini  "  the  exclusive  classical  Italian  school 
of  violin  playing  reached  its  culmination,  and  the  pupils  of 
Corelli  and  Tartini  form  the  connecting  link  between  that 
school  and  the  schools  of  Germany  and  France." 

Somis,  Giardini,  Lulli,  and  Pugnani  were  contemporaries 
of  Tartini.  Pugnani  (1727-1803)  was  the  teacher  of  Viotti 
(1753—1824),  the  founder  of  the  modern  Franco-Belgian 
school.  The  most  prominent  representatives  of  Italian  violin 
playing  directly  after  Tartini  were  Geminiani,  Nardini,  and 
Locatelli.  Geminiani  was  the  first  to  publish  a  "violin  school" 
of  any  importance,  but  Leopold  Mozart,  the  father  of  the  illus- 
trious composer,  published  a  "violin  school"  a  few  years 
later,  which  ranks  higher  than  his.  Pietro  Locatelli  (1693-  Locatelli 
1764)  was  a  pupil  of  Corelli.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
technic.  In  his  sonatas  and  concertos  he  followed  in  the 
footsteps  of  his  teacher.  They  are  composed  in  a  serious 
vein.  His  caprices  and  etudes,  on  the  other  hand,  have  little 
value  except  as  experiments  in  developing  execution.  He  has 
been  called  the  great-grandfather  of  our  modern  "  Finger- 
heroes."  His  caprice,  "  Le  Labyrinthe,"  is  a  famous  piece 
of  eccentric  execution,  which  only  virtuosos  are  able  to 
vanquish. 


208 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Paganini 


Technical 
features  of 
his  playing 


Nicolo  Paganini  (1784-1840),  the  most  noted  of  violin 
virtuosos,  exercised  a  world-wide  influence  which  has  lasted 
to  the  present  day.  He  was  the  genius  par  excellence  of  the 
violin.  The  story  of  the  brilliant  public  career  of  this  ex- 
traordinary man  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters 
in  the  history  of  music.  The  wonderful  effect  of  his  playing 
did  not  depend  on  the  perfection  of  his  technic  and  mere 
tours  de  force,  but  on  his  flights  of  pure  genius,  which  defied 
description.  As  soon  as  he  began  to  play,  the  audience  was 
spellbound.  "There  was  in  him  —  though  certainly  not  the 
evil  spirit  suspected  by  the  superstitious  —  a  demonic  element 
which  irresistibly  took  hold  of  those  who  came  within  his 
sphere."  He  possessed  in  the  highest  degree  originality  and 
character.  Though  his  tone  was  not  powerful,  its  singing 
quality  was  intensely  expressive  and  thrilling.  "  He  made  a 
great  use  of  sliding  his  fingers  along  the  strings  —  sometimes 
producing  a  most  beautiful,  at  other  times  a  most  laughable, 
effect."  He  was  fond  of  tricks  and  surprises  ;  sometimes  he 
made  sounds  "  like  the  mewlings  of  an  expiring  cat."  He  made 
free  use  of  flageolet  tones  and  tremolo.  "  The  main  technical 
features  of  Paganini's  playing  were  an  unfailing  intonation,  a 
lightning-like  rapidity  on  the  finger  board  and  with  the  bow,  and 
a  command  of  double-stops,  harmonics,  and  double-harmonics 
hardly  equaled  by  any  one  before  him  or  after  him.  He  also 
produced  most  peculiar  effects,  which  for  a  long  time  puzzled 
all  violinists,  by  tuning  his  violin  in  different  ways."  He  pro- 
duced his  staccato  by  striking  the  bow  violently  on  the  string 
and  letting  it  spring  upwards.  He  also  made  frequent  use  of 
pizzicato  passages  for  the  left  hand.  His  compositions  show 
originality,  though  for  the  most  part  they  are  now  old- 
fashioned.  His  twenty-four  caprices  "  Perpetual  Motion  "  and 
the  rondo  "  La  Clochette  "  are  still  favorites.  Schumann  and 
Liszt  transcribed  the  caprices  for  piano.  Brahms  composed 
twenty-eight  variations  on  a  theme  of  Paganini.  The  list  of 
his  works  embraces  two  concertos,  sets  of  variations,  including 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     209 

the  "  Carnival  of  Venice,"  caprices,  sonatas  for  violin  and  gui- 
tar, and  three  quartets  for  violin,  viola,  guitar,  and  violoncello. 

Germany  followed  in  the  path  of  the  Italian  masters  of  the  German 
violin.  The  most  prominent  German  violin  masters  of  the  masters 
time  of  Corelli  were  Furchheim,  Baltzar,  Walther,  and  Biber. 
Franz  Heinrich  Biber  (died  1698)  was  a  composer  and  vio- 
linist of  high  merit.  He  had  great  warmth  of  feeling  and 
considerable  technic,  as  his  works  show.  His  sonatas  for 
violins  and  bass  compare  favorably  with  Corelli's.  Many  of 
the  pupils  of  Corelli  and  Tartini  entered  into  the  service  of 
German  princes  and  exercised  an  influence  on  native  talent. 
A  number  of  German  violin  masters  arose  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  most  noted  of  whom  are  Pisendel,  Graun,  Benda, 
Stamitz,  Cannabich,  and  Holzbauer.  The  three  last-named 
masters  were  connected  with  the  celebrated  orchestra  at 
Mannheim,  which  was  perhaps  the  foremost  in  Europe  about 
the  middle  of  the  century. 

Although  violin  playing  was  practised  in  France  at  a  very 
early  date,  it  was  very  elemental  until  the  advent  of  Lully. 
Baptiste  Anet  (c.  1700)  was  the  first  French  violinist  of  note ; 
he  was  the  pupil  of  Corelli.  He  was  greatly  excelled,  however, 
by  Jean  Marie  Leclair  (1697-1764),  also  a  pupil  of  Corelli. 
His  compositions  rival  those  of  the  best  Italian  masters  of  his 
time.  They  are  characterized  by  vivacity,  grace,  and  charm, 
and  often  express  seriousness  and  deep  feeling.  Other  French 
violinists  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  Pagin,  Lahoussaye, 
Berthaume,  Gavinies,  and  Boucher. 

Giovanni  Battista  Viotti  (1753-1824)  marks  a  new  era  in  Viotti 
French  violin  playing.  He  was  an  Italian  by  birth,  and  a 
pupil  of  Pugnani.  He  made  his  first  appearance  in  Paris  in 
1782,  and  was  acknowledged  as  the  greatest  living  violinist. 
He  lived  in  Paris  for  a  number  of  years,  and  his  playing  and 
teaching  exercised  a  potent  influence  on  French  and  German 
violinists.  His  most  celebrated  pupils  were  Rode  and  Baillot. 
He  is  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  the  Franco-Belgian 


2IO 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


The  lute 


Wind  in- 
struments 
of  the  six- 
teenth and 
seventeenth 
centuries 


school,  which  produced  some  of  the  greatest  modern  violinists 
—  De  Beriot,  Vieuxtemps,  Wieniavvski,  Sarasate,  and  others. 
Viotti  ranks  among  the  foremost  violinists.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  extend  the  classical  sonata  form  to  the  violin  con- 
certo. He  composed  twenty-nine  concertos,  twenty-one  string 
quartets,  twenty-one  string  trios,  fifty-one  violin  duets,  eight- 
een violin  sonatas,  etc.  The  study  of  some  of  his  concertos 
still  forms  a  part  of  the  regular  training  for  students  of  the 
violin.  His  "Concerto  in  A  Minor  "  is  sometimes  played  in  the 
concert  room,  but  his  works  are  for  the  most  part  antiquated. 

The  most  eminent  German  violin  masters  of  the  nineteenth 
century  were  Spohr,  Ferdinand  David,  Boehm,  Ernst,  Hellmes- 
berger,  Joachim,  Ferdinand  Laub,  Lipinski,  and  Molique.  Ole 
Bull  belonged  to  no  school.  He  was  a  player  of  decided  origi- 
nality and  of  great  popularity,  but  was  not  free  from  a  certain 
charlatanism,  and  exerted  no  influence  on  musical  style. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  lute 
was  a  favorite  instrument,  and  was  in  the  hands  of  all  artists 
and  dilettanti.  Its  literature  was  enormous  and  widespread. 
Originally  it  had  only  four  strings,  but  later  as  many  as  four- 
teen on  the  finger  board,  with  frets,  while  from  a  second  neck 
beside  the  finger  board  ten  more  strings  were  stretched.  These 
strings  were  not  shortened  by  the  fingers,  and  had  to  be  tuned 
over  again  every  time  the  key  changed.  It  was  said  that  if  a 
lute  player  lived  to  be  eighty  years  old,  sixty  of  them  would 
have  been  spent  in  tuning  his  instrument.  The  theorbo,  chitar- 
rone,  and  Roman  theorbo  were  large  lutes  which  were  used  in 
the  early  opera  as  thorough-bass  instruments  to  accompany 
the  recitative,  etc. 

The  regal,  positive,  and  organo  di  legno  were  small  port- 
able organs  used  in  the  early  opera.  There  were  two  classes 
of  flutes  —  flutes  a  bee  (or  block  flutes)  and  traverse  flutes. 
The  former  had  the  mouthpiece  at  the  end  of  the  instrument, 
like  the  clarinet ;  the  latter  was  played  like  the  modern  flute, 
sideways,  with  the  lips  applied  to  an  embouchure.  There 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     211 

were  no  less  than  eight  sizes  of  block  flutes,  ranging  from 
bass  to  soprano. 

The  cornetto  was  a  wind  instrument  with  a  wooden  mouth- 
piece, and  had  a  hard  but  clear  quality  of  tone.  Its  range 
was  from  a  to  g3.  It  was  used  in  some  of  the  church  music 
of  Gabrieli,  and  had  a  place  in  the  orchestra  till  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  entirely  disappeared. 

The  fagotto  or  bassoon  family  of  double-reed  instruments  The  reed 

A  j.   c.          ^  i         j    j-        Ai      i_       instruments 

were  numerous.  At  first  they  were  not  played  directly  by 
the  lips,  as  the  mouthpiece  was  inclosed  in  a  bag ;  in  fact 
they  were  bagpipes,  like  the  schalm,  shawm,  or  musette.  The 
shawm  is  said  to  have  cackled  like  a  goose.  The  oldest  class 
of  these  instruments,  called  the  pommer  or  bombardon,  was 
in  various  sizes  from  bass  to  soprano.  Later  the  bag  was 
discarded  and  the  bassoon  was  played  by  holding  the  double 
reed  in  the  mouth,  as  nowadays.  The  oboe  was  derived  from 
the  shawm.  It  appeared  in  various  sizes  about  1700.  The 
clarinet  was  invented  in  1700,  but  did  not  find  a  permanent 
place  in  the  orchestra  until  Mozart's  later  years  (1791).  The 
clarinet  is  a  single-reed  instrument,  with  an  ebony  mouth- 
piece. Its  bore  is  different  from  that  of  the  oboe,  and  this 
difference,  combined  with  the  single  reed,  accounts  for  its 
characteristic  tone  quality. 

The  trombone  assumed  its  present  modern  appearance  and 
tone  characteristics  during  the  sixteenth  century.  The  trumpet 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  instruments,  familiar  to  the  Jews, 
and  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Rome  adopted  the  trumpet 
under  the  name  of  "  tuba  "  or  "  lituus."  From  the  large-bored 
tuba  sprang  the  bugle,  serpent,  horn,  cornet,  etc.  The  lituus 
was  a  small-bored  cylindrical  trumpet,  from  which  came  the 
trombone. 

The  horn  (French  horn,  Waldhorn)  was  used  originally  to   The  horn 
give  signals  in  hunting.     It  was  introduced  into  the  orches- 
tra before  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  early 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century  both  Handel  and  Bach  made 


212 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Orchestra 
of  the  time 
of  Monte- 
verde 


use  of  it.  Gossec,  in  1757,  was  the  first  French  composer  to 
employ  horns.  Gluck  was  the  first  dramatic  master  to  pro- 
duce tragic  and  thrilling  effects  by  certain  motives  for  the 
solo  horn.  Since  his  day  the  horns  have  played  an  important 
and  characteristic  part  in  the  modern  orchestra. 

The  orchestra  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  in  its  infancy. 
It  hardly  deserved  the  name  before  the  time  of  Monteverde. 
In  a  ballet  performed  in  1581  mention  is  made  of  oboes, 
flutes,  cornets,  trombones,  viole  da  gamba,  lutes,  harps,  flage- 
olets, and  violins.  In  the  oratorio  "  L'anima  e  il  corpo  "  by 
Cavalieri,  performed  in  1600,  the  orchestra  consisted  of  a 
double  lyre  (or  viole  da  gamba),  a  double  guitar  (or  bass 
lute),  a  harpsichord,  and  two  flutes.  Monteverde,  in  his 
opera  "  Orfeo,"  employed  an  orchestra  consisting  of  ten 
tenor  viols,  two  bass  viols,  two  little  French  violins,  two  viole 
da  gamba,  two  harpsichords,  one  double  harp,  two  large 
guitars,  two  organs,  of  wood,  one  regal,  two  cornetti,  one 
clarion,  three  trumpets  with  mutes,  and  four  trombones. 
Monteverde  made  various  combinations  of  these  instruments 
to  characterize  the  dramatic  personalities.  We  owe  the 
tremolo  of  the  strings  to  him.  The  violin  now  gained  its 
leading  place  in  the  orchestra.  Cavalli,  in  1649,  accompanied 
an  aria  with  two  violins  and  bass.  Scarlatti,  in  1676,  used  a 
double  orchestra  consisting,  first,  of  two  solo  violins  and 
violoncellos ;  second,  a  large  body  of  accompanying  violins, 
tenors  and  basses.  In  Scarlatti's  time  the  string  band  — 
first  and  second  violins,  viola,  violoncello,  and  contrabass  — 
was  organized  as  nowadays,  and  constituted  the  real  body  of 
the  orchestra.  The  wind  instruments  were  accessory,  and 
were  available  for  giving  variety  of  tone  color  and  effect. 

The  wind  instruments  at  that  time  were  flutes,  bassoons, 
Handel  oboes,  horns,  trumpets,  and  trombones ;  kettledrums  were 
also  used.  After  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
clarinets  were  added.  The  solo  trumpet  played  an  important 
role  in  the  scores  of  Handel  and  Bach.  It  was  then  a  high 


Orchestra 


INSTRUMENTS  AND   INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC     213 

soprano  instrument  and  capable  of  florid  execution.  Handel 
used  an  excessive  number  of  oboes,  and  wrote  passages  for 
them  quite  in  the  style  of  the  violin.  He  did  not  seem  to 
appreciate  their  real  character.  Bach,  on  the  other  hand, 
composed  some  beautiful,  pathetic,  cantabile  solos  for  the 
oboe,  which  express  the  true  nature  and  function  of  this 
lyric  instrument.  He  used  also  the  oboe  di  caccia,  which  is  a 
tenor  bassoon,  so  to  speak,  and  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  English  horn,  which  is  a  tenor  oboe.  Bach's  ideal  of 
an  orchestra  was  two  or  three  first  violins  and  as  many  second, 
two  first  and  two  second  viols,  two  violoncellos,  one  double- 
bass,  two  or  three  oboes,  one  or  two  bassoons,  three  trumpets, 
and  one  pair  of  kettledrums.  This  limited  number  of  strings 
was  entirely  inadequate  to  balance  the  wind  instruments. 

This  orchestra  was  intended  to  cooperate  with  a  choir  of  The  modern 
at  least  twelve  singers  !  This  small  proportion  of  voices  was  c 
characteristic  of  most  choirs  in  those  days.  Haydn  and 
Mozart  are  the  founders  of  the  art  of  modern  orchestration, 
but  in  their  early  scores  they  employed  few  wind  instruments. 
Haydn's  first  symphony  is  for  strings,  two  oboes,  and  two 
horns.  In  their  later  orchestral  works  they  used  generally 
two  flutes,  two  oboes,  two  bassoons,  two  horns,  two  trumpets 
and  kettledrums,  and  sometimes  clarinets  and  trombones. 
Beethoven's  combination  of  wind  instruments  was  about  the 
same.  Since  his  time  the  orchestra  has  increased  in  size  and 
efficiency,  but  remains  the  same  in  its  chief  features;  the  string 
band  is  larger,  and  new  wind  instruments  have  been  added. 

In  the  course  of  the  development  of  instrumental  accom- 
paniment in  connection  with  the  opera  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  idea  of  independent  concerted  instrumental 
music  was  conceived  ;  thus  arose  the  concerto  and  symphony 
in  three  contrasted  movements,  suggested  by  the  so-called 
Italian  overture.  Sammartini  (born  1700)  was  one  of  the 
first  to  promote  the  symphony,  but  it  was  reserved  for 
Emanuel  Bach  and  Haydn  to  give  it  a  classical  form. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
HANDEL  AND  BACH  —  HAYDN 

During  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  Italian  mas- 
ters reigned  supreme;  yet  the  musical  scepter  was  destined 
to  pass  from  their  hands  through  the  gigantic  work  achieved 
by  Handel  and  Bach.  Under  their  mighty  genius  the  founda- 
tions were  laid  for  the  ultimate  supremacy  of  Germany. 
George  George  Frederick  Handel  was  born  at  Halle  on  the  twenty- 

H'andeT*  third  of  Februarv>  l685  (about  four  weeks  before  the  birth 
of  Bach).  Handel's  father  was  a  surgeon,  with  the  title  of 
Kammerdiener.  At  a  very  early  age  the  son  showed  a 
passionate  love  of  music  ;  so  much  so  that  his  father  opposed 
his  cultivation  of  the  art.  At  the  age  of  eight  years  the  at- 
tention of  the  prince  of  Weissenfels  was  drawn  to  the  boy's 
great  talent,  and  he  persuaded  the  father  to  withdraw  his 
opposition,  and  to  provide  regular  musical  instruction  for  his 
son.  He  now  became  the  pupil  of  Zachau,  the  learned  cathe- 
dral organist,  who  gave  him  a  thorough  training  in  organ  play- 
ing and  counterpoint.  Handel's  remarkable  skill  was  shown 
when  he  was  only  twelve  years  of  age,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
visit  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  introduced  at  court.  The  Italian 
composers,  Bononcini  and  Ariosti,  were  favorites  at  court, 
and  the  latter  recognized  young  Handel's  remarkable  talent. 
Bononcini  ignored  him  at  first,  and  then  tried  to  puzzle  him 
with  the  difficult  task  of  thorough-bass  reading,  but  Handel 
acquitted  himself  well.  Years  later,  when  Handel  was  in  his 
maturity,  he  met  Bononcini  as  a  rival  in  London  in  the  field 
of  opera,  and  vanquished  him.  Handel's  esteem  for  his 
father's  wish  that  he  should  study  law  was  evinced  after  his 
father's  death  (1697),  by  having  his  name  entered  at  the 

214 


HANDEL  AND  BACH  215 

university  for  five  years,  but  at  the  same  time  he  continued 
his  musical  studies  and  became  organist  at  one  of  the  churches 
of  his  native  town.  His  absorption  in  music,  however,  finally 
led  him  to  abandon  the  study  of  law  and  to  leave  home  at 
the  age  of  eighteen  to  seek  his  fortune  as  a  professional 
musician. 

He  directed  his  steps  first  to  Hamburg,  where  he  remained  Director  of 
from  1703  to  1706,  and  then  set  out  for  Italy.  His  four 
years'  stay  in  Italy  was  spent  with  the  utmost  advantage  to 
his  musical  development.  On  his  return  to  his  native  land  he 
went  to  Hanover,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Steffani, 
the  director  of  music  at  the  court,  whose  chamber  duets 
served  as  a  model  for  his  own.  In  1710  he  was  appointed 
Steffani's  successor  at  Hanover,  but  was  restless  in  this 
narrow  sphere ;  he  visited  England  several  times,  and  finally 
remained  there  altogether.  The  duke  of  Chandos,  who  lived 
in  regal  grandeur  at  Cannons,  engaged  Handel  in  1 7 1 7  as  his 
chapelmaster.  A  number  of  grand  anthems,  his  first  oratorio 
"Esther,"  and  the  lovely  pastoral  "  Acis  and  Galatea"  were 
the  fruits  of  the  three  years  of  service  to  this  nobleman. 
In  1720  the  new  opera  house  was  established  at  the  Haymar- 
ket  by  a  company  of  leading  noblemen,  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Royal  Academy  of  Music,"  and  Handel  was  engaged 
as  composer  and  director  of  music.  The  next  twenty  years 
were  very  eventful  in  the  life  of  the  composer.  During  this 
period  of  his  connection  with  the  Italian  opera  he  entered  on 
an  heroic  struggle  with  the  cabal  of  Italian  singers,  who  were 
backed  by  the  whole  nobility.  At  the  outset  all  went  harmo- 
niously and  gloriously ;  Chrysander  calls  these  first  eight 
years  "  the  golden  time."  During  this  epoch  Handel  wrote 
twelve  operas;  then  came  in  1728  the  popular  English 
"  Beggar's  Opera  "  and  ballad  plays,  which  gave  a  new  turn 
to  the  public  taste,  and  emptied  the  benches  of  the  Italian 
opera.  This  led  to  a  new  opera  academy,  and  Handel  went 
to  Italy  to  engage  singers. 


2l6 


THE   HISTORV  OF  MUSIC 


The  rival 
opera 


Sebastian 
Bach 


In  1732  Handel's  first  oratorio  "Esther"  was  performed 
on  the  stage  with  action,  followed  in  the  next  year  by  his 
"  Deborah."  This  was  a  step  toward  breaking  the  chains 
which  the  Italians  had  already  imposed  upon  him.  Now 
succeeded  a  period  of  strife  in  which  Handel  undertook  to 
govern  the  singers ;  but  they  were  incorrigible,  and  rose  in 
rebellion.  Supported  by  the  nobility,  they  set  up  an  opera 
in  opposition  to  Handel,  who  soon  found  himself  deserted  by 
the  public  and  was  obliged  to  carry  on  an  unequal  contest. 
At  last  he  decided  to  give  up  the  opera ;  he  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1737,  ruined  in  purse  and  broken  in  health;  but  in 
abandoning  this  degenerate  field  to  his  enemies  he  was  destined 
to  achieve  an  honorable  triumph  in  a  new  field  of  art,  and 
through  his  former  trials  he  came  to  be  the  means  of  devel- 
oping the  oratorio  to  the  highest  point,  and  also  of  enriching 
the  lives  of  untold  generations  of  men,  as  well  as  to  be  the 
direct  benefactor  of  the  poor  and  needy  of  his  day.  He  de- 
voted himself  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the  compo- 
sition and  performance  of  his  unequaled  oratorios,  and  died 
on  the  fourteenth  of  April,  1759. 

Sebastian  Bach  was  born  at  Eisenbach  on  the  twenty-first 
of  March,  1685,  and  was  consequently  twenty-seven  days 
younger  than  his  contemporary.  His  family  before  him  had 
been  for  generations  distinguished  for  their  musical  talent, 
and  one  has  only  to  consult  the  genealogical  table  to  marvel 
at  the  number  of  musicians  in  the  Bach  family,  —  descendants 
of  Hans  and  Veit  Bach,  who  lived  in  the  second  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Indeed,  there  is  no  second  case  on  record 
of  a  particular  artistic  talent  or  faculty  running  through  so 
many  generations  and  branches  of  one  family.  Sebastian  was 
a  son  of  the  court  musician  Johann  Ambrosius  Bach.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  which  occurred  in  Sebastian's  childhood, 
he  lived  with  one  of  his  older  brothers,  Johann  Christoph 
Bach,  organist  at  Ohrdruff,  and  received  his  first  musical 
instruction  from  him.  His  brother  appears  to  have  been 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  217 

overstrict  with  him.  It  is  related  that  Sebastian  was  forbidden 
to  use  a  book  of  organ  and  harpsichord  pieces  which  were 
the  object  of  his  desires.  But  he  managed  to  reach  through 
the  lattice  of  the  bookcase  where  the  pieces  were  locked  up, 
and  spent  six  months  in  copying  them  out  secretly  on  moon- 
light nights,  whereby  he  is  supposed  to  have  hurt  his  eyes, 
and  caused  the  blindness  with  which  he  was  afflicted  in  his 
later  days.  His  brother  discovered  him  in  this  and  was  mean 
enough  to  take  away  the  copy  he  had  so  patiently  transcribed. 

In  his  boyhood  he  possessed  a  fine  soprano  voice,  and  sang  Positions 
in  the  choir  of  the  St.  Michael's  School  at  Liineburg,  where 
he  was  pursuing  his  education  at  the  gymnasium.  In  1703 
he  was  appointed  court  musician  at  Weimar,  and  occupied 
successively  the  position  of  organist  at  Arnstadt,  Miihlhausen, 
and  Weimar,  and  the  office  of  chapelmaster  to  the  duke  of 
Anhalt-Cothen,  until  his  call  to  Leipzig  in  1723,  on  the  death 
of  Kuhnau,  whom  he  succeeded  as  cantor  and  director  of 
music  at  the  St.  Thomas  School.  He  held  this  honorable 
office  until  his  death. 

Bach  led  a  very  quiet,  uneventful  life.  He  was  hardly  ever 
absent  from  his  post,  except  now  and  then  in  response  to  the 
invitation  of  some  princely  patron.  In  his  younger  days  he 
was  invited  to  Dresden  to  meet  the  celebrated  French  organist 
Marchand  in  a  trial  of  skill.  The  company  was  assembled, 
Bach  was  ready,  but  the  Frenchman  did  not  make  his  appear- 
ance ;  he  had  prudently  left  Dresden  by  the  early  morning 
post.  A  few  years  before  Bach's  death  he  received  a  pressing 
invitation  from  Frederick  the  Great  to  visit  him  at  Potsdam. 
On  Bach's  arrival  he  was  ushered  into  the  king's  presence 
without  having  time  even  to  dust  his  coat.  His  majesty  was 
so  desirous  of  meeting  the  great  musician  that  after  a  cordial 
reception  he  was  taken  from  room  to  room  by  the  king  to  try 
his  Silbermann  pianofortes.  Frederick  gave  him  the  theme 
of  a  fugue  to  improvise  upon,  which  he  did  in  a  masterly 
manner  to  the  astonishment  of  the  listeners ;  on  his  return 


2l8  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

home  Bach  wrought  out  a  number  of  remarkable  movements 
on  this  theme  which  he  engraved  with  his  own  hands  and 
dedicated  to  the  king,  under  the  name  of  "  Musical  Offering." 
During  his  latter  years  Bach  was  afflicted  with  total  blindness. 
He  died  on  the  twenty-eighth  of  July,  1750. 

Lives  of  "  Handel  and  Bach,"  says  Rochlitz,  "  were  born  almost  at 

Bach  con"  ^e  same  moment  and  died  in  the  ripe  years  of  manhood, 
trasted  They  were  both  Saxons,  and  were  large,  powerful  men  of 
iron  constitution.  Their  eminent  genius  for  music  urged 
them  irresistibly  onward,  and  both  acquired  in  early  life  a 
strict  and  thorough  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
music  from  distinguished  organists.  They  both  found  a  much 
more  extended  and  elevated  sphere,  and  became  celebrated 
far  and  wide.  They  were  honored  by  the  mightiest  princes  of 
their  age ;  but  while  they  thankfully  acknowledged  these 
attentions  of  the  great,  they  were  not  allured  one  hair's 
breadth  from  their  unceasing  activity  in  their  calling.  They 
both  exercised  their  gifts  in  every  noble  form  of  composition, 
and,  more  than  all  else,  dedicated  their  art  to  the  pure  and 
sublime  themes  of  religion.  As  men,  they  were  upright, 
straightforward,  and  firm,  heart  and  soul,  in  the  Christian 
faith.  Although  both  were  blind  in  their  old  age,  they  still 
continued  to  pursue  their  beloved  calling  to  the  last ;  and 
now  they  rest  in  peace  and  blessedness.  They  were  but  little 
understood  by  their  contemporaries,  though  honored  and 
respected  ;  but  now  the  world  pays  them  universal  homage. 
Yet  with  all  these  apparent  similarities  they  were  very 
unlike.  Handel's  restless,  passionate  spirit  impelled  him 
while  still  a  youth  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the  turmoil  of  the 
world,  which  he  accepted  as  his  lifelong  field  of  action, 
whether  it  was  to  struggle  or  to  love,  to  conquer  or  to  main- 
tain his  rights.  He  sought  to  know  everything  that  was 
uncommon  in  men,  all  that  moves  and  commands  them  in 
art  as  well  as  life,  without  showing  himself  arbitrary,  but 
winning  much  for  the  growth  of  his  own  mind  and  character. 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  219 

He  preferred  to  have  intercourse  with  the  mass  of  the  people 
among  whom  he  lived,  yet  he  moved  freely  among  the  great 
who  governed  the  people.  He  would  allow  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other  to  govern  him,  however,  though  he  was  ever 
willing  to  serve  all  classes  faithfully.  His  courage  never 
deserted  him  ;  he  carried  out  his  undertakings  against  the 
most  persistent  and  powerful  opposition,  and  with  many 
joyful  and  painful  experiences  remained  ever  true  and  faithful 
to  his  principles.  In  his  maturer  years  he  began  to  hold  an 
account  with  persons  and  things,  and  selected  the  path  best 
adapted  to  his  whole  nature,  which  he  pursued  to  the  end  of 
his  days,  and  accomplished  what  no  one  before  or  since  has 
done.  He  was  never  married  ;  he  died  rich.  His  body  rests 
in  Westminster  Abbey  among  splendid  monuments.  His  life 
throughout  was  heroic  ! 

"  What  a  contrast  to  Bach  !  From  the  time  when  Bach  was  Simplicity 
so  fortunate  as  to  receive  the  appointment  of  organist  at  Arn- 
stadt,  with  an  annual  salary  of  seventy  to  eighty  dollars,  his 
desires  apparently  were  fulfilled.  He  sought  for  no  higher 
post,  and  only  when  a  new  one  was  offered  him  did  he  accept 
it  thankfully  as  the  gift  of  Providence.  In  every  new  position 
it  was  his  only  aspiration  to  do  his  duty  faithfully,  and  accord- 
ingly he  made  his  gifts  serve  his  place ;  so  that  as  an  organ- 
ist he  composed  organ  pieces ;  as  the  Weimar  chapelmaster, 
psalms  and  sacred  cantatas  and  chamber  music  ;  and  as  the 
musical  director  of  the  St.  Thomas  School,  his  great,  poly- 
phonic, difficult,  and  learned  vocal  works.  Kings  and  princes 
not  infrequently  commanded  him  to  play  to  them.  He  did 
their  will  modestly,  and,  fully  satisfied,  returned  to  his  sim- 
ple home.  He  must  have  known  that  he  was  the  greatest 
organ  virtuoso  in  the  world,  and  at  that  time  a  great  mas- 
ter of  this  instrument  was  well  rewarded.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  in  France,  England,  and  Holland,  but  was  never 
known  to  express  the  wish  of  setting  his  foot  on  foreign  soil. 
He  married  young,  brought  up  a  whole  colony  of  children, 


22O 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Corre- 
sponding 
contrast  of 
style,  form, 
and  expres- 
sion 


died  poor,  and  rested  in  the  churchyard,  no  one  knew  where, 
until  accidentally  his  bones  were  discovered  near  the  St. 
Thomas  Church.  His  life  was  patriarchal." 

These  well-drawn  contrasts  in  the  character  and  worldly 
career  of  the  two  masters  have  a  parallel  in  their  works.  We 
discern  corresponding  differences  of  style,  form,  and  expres- 
sion. We  perceive  in  Handel's  works  the  decided  influence 
of  his  worldly  career  on  his  music.  He  unites  three  national- 
ities, so  to  speak ;  he  is  a  German  in  his  creative  originality 
and  learning,  an  Italian  in  his  rare  vocal  style,  and  an  English- 
man in  his  clear,  solid,  and  simple  expression.  Although  he 
was  a  thoroughly  trained  musician  before  leaving  his  home  at 
Halle,  he  learned  much  in  Italy.  He  studied  the  best  mas- 
ters, Scarlatti,  Steffani,  and  others,  and  formed  his  vocal 
style  on  their  models.  His  long  life  in  England  made  a  still 
greater  impression  on  his  musical  creations.  Without  sacri- 
ficing one  iota  of  his  principles  as  an  artist  in  order  to  gain 
the  popular  ear,  he  was  able  to  hide  his  learning  and  reserve 
his  strength,  and  thus  please  the  uncultivated  and  learned 
alike.  He  gave  up  as  much  as  he  could  of  skill  and  learning 
to  reach  all  hearts  and  minds,  and  accomplish  the  difficult 
success  of  pleasing  the  many  without  offending  the  few. 
Like  Mozart  he  was  a  universal  master,  although  he  did  not 
exercise  his  genius  in  so  many  and  diverse  forms  of  the  art. 

Handel's  long  career  as  an  opera  composer  served  as  an 
admirable  school  for  his  talents ;  and  when,  by  free  choice 
rather  than  by  absolute  force  of  circumstances,  he  set  out 
on  a  much  higher  and  more  fruitful  path,  he  was  so  well 
equipped  that  his  triumphs  were  but  the  natural  result  of  his 
former  discipline.  He  founded  his  later  works  on  the  grand 
subjects  of  the  Bible,  —  on  its  sacred  text  and  historical 
record ;  not,  however,  in  a  narrow,  literal  sense,  but  in  a 
broad,  universal  spirit  for  all  mankind.  His  sincere  religious 
faith  and  principles,  his  many  trials,  and  his  strength  of  char- 
acter under  trial  rendered  him  fully  worthy  as  a  man,  as 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  221 

well  as  artist,  to  create  such  works  as  "  The  Messiah  "  and 
"  Israel  in  Egypt."  These  masterpieces  are  more  than  lyrical 
and  dramatic  ;  they  have  a  grand  objective  character,  and  are 
comparable  to  Greek  tragedy  or  the  great  romantic  tragedies 
of  Shakespeare. 

The  operas  of  Handel  are  not  musical  dramas  in  the  sense 
of  the  present  day.  The  musical  element  predominates 
greatly  over  the  dramatic  action;  the  characters,  as  actors, 
are  generally  trivial  and  insipid.  It  was  reserved  for  Gluck 
and  Mozart  to  combine  harmoniously  the  musical  and  dramatic 
elements.  The  former  fulfilled  the  French  ideal  of  a  declam- 
atory and  musical  play ;  the  latter  created  universal  opera,  in 
which  French,  Italian,  and  German  styles  and  ideas  were 
marvelously  combined.  Handel  was  content  to  avail  himself 
of  the  conditions  of  the  opera  as  he  found  them.  He  accepted 
the  pedantic,  conventional  forms  then  in  vogue,  and  sought 
only  to  beautify  rather  than  to  enlarge  or  transform  them. 
As  pure  music  his  opera  airs  and  pieces  represent  the  highest 
artistic  style  of  his  period,  and  express  clearly  and  definitely 
the  characters  that  utter  them  ;  but  they  demand  no  powerful 
dramatic  action,  for  their  subject-matter  requires  none.  These 
are  the  very  conditions  of  his  oratorio  solos.  Each  voice  — 
soprano,  contralto,  tenor,  or  bass  —  is  selected  as  the  type 
of  certain  personal  characteristics,  without  suggesting  any 
dramatic  action  on  the  part  of  the  performer. 

Of  Handel's  forty  operas  not  one  is  on  the  modern  stage,   Handel's 
and  we  shall  probably  never  witness  their  revival.    Notwith-  oratonos 
standing  the  long  and  furious  opposition  with  which  Handel 
had  to  contend  during  the  twenty  years  of  Italian  opera  in 
London,  he  was  not  defeated  as  an  opera  composer,  but  as  an 
opera  manager.    He  retired,  broken  in  health  but  unconquer- 
able in  spirit.    He  had  already  succeeded  beyond  expectation 
in  educating  the  English  public  to  his  style,  and  thus  even- 
tually it  was  prepared  to  appreciate  his  great  work  in  the 
field  of  oratorio,  which  was,  in  fact,  much  more  akin  to  the 


222  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

English  mind.  In  the  first  place,  the  oratorios  were  sung  in 
English,  which  was  an  immense  advantage.  Then  again,  the 
sacred  subjects  which  he  selected  were  more  interesting  to 
that  pietistic  age,  which  knew  no  middle  ground  but  only  ex- 
tremes,—  either  an  orthodox  belief  or  a  total  abandonment 
and  frivolity.  These  characteristics  were  more  or  less  reflected 
in  the  manners,  literature,  and  drama  of  that  period.  Before 
the  resignation  of  his  position  at  the  London  Opera,  even  as 
early  as  1732,  he  brought  out  his  first  oratorios,  "Esther," 
"  Deborah,"  and  "  Athalia  "  ;  he  had  written  his  "  Coronation 
Anthem,"  "Alexander's  Feast,"  and  the  "  Funeral  Anthem." 
In  1737  he  retired  from  the  opera,  and  went  abroad  to  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  to  try  the  baths  for  his  health.  His  speedy  cure 
appears  almost  miraculous ;  in  a  few  weeks  he  returned  to 
England,  fully  restored,  and  ready  to  take  up  his  work  again 
with  redoubled  zeal.  His  productivity  at  this  time  was  aston- 
ishing. In  the  summer  of  1738  he  composed  the  oratorios  of 
"  Saul"  and  "  Israel  in  Egypt "  in  the  incredibly  short  time  of 
three  months.  Two  months  were  given  to  "  Saul,"  and  on  its 
completion  he  immediately  went  to  work  on  "  Israel,"  which 
he  finished  in  twenty-eight  days.  In  1740  he  composed 
"  L'Allegro."  But  these  works  did  not  find  immediate  appre- 
ciation ;  he  had  yet  to  live  down  personal  spite  and  enmity. 
"The  In  the  summer  of  1741  he  composed  "The  Messiah"  in 

twenty-four  days,  and,  seeing  no  prospect  of  success  in  London, 
he  accepted  an  invitation  to  go  to  Dublin.  He  would  fain 
try  his  fortune  there,  and  see  whether  prejudice  and  hatred 
would  follow  him.  This  was  the  turning  point  in  his  career. 
"  The  Messiah  "  met  with  a  glorious  reception,  and  the  com- 
poser was  greeted  everywhere  with  cordiality.  Victory  had 
perched  on  his  banner,  and  on  his  return  to  London  at  the 
end  of  nine  months  he  found  the  public  eager  to  hear  his 
great  work.  It  was  performed  in  London  for  the  first  time 
at  the  Covent  Garden  Theater  in  Lent  of  1742.  Not  long 
afterwards  "The  Messiah"  was  heard  in  all  parts  of  the 


HANDEL  AND   BACH 


223 


kingdom,  and  Handel's  fame  was  now  established  as  firmly 
as  a  rock.  This  greatest  of  all  oratorios  stands  far  above 
the  changes  of  taste,  and  so  long  as  Christian  faith  and 
modern  civilization  endure  it  will  maintain  its  place  in  the 
hearts  of  men.  Whatever  opinions  may  be  held  with  regard 
to  the  Bible,  —  whether  they  be  orthodox,  rationalistic,  ele- 
vated, or  worldly,  —  it  is  certain  that  this  oratorio  will  remain 
unaffected  by  them.  This  is  because  the  sublime  sacredness 
of  the  theme  and  the  consummate  choice  and  skill  exhibited 
in  the  selection  and  combination  of  the  various  scriptural 
texts  have  found  their  appropriate  and  adequate  expression 
in  lofty  and  inspired  strains.  "  In  'The  Messiah'  there  are  no 
personalities,  but  only  voices  to  express  the  religious  feelings 
of  all  humanity ;  for  real  personations  would  appear  too  insig- 
nificant to  represent  the  grandest  and  most  universal  facts  of 
human  history."  "The  Messiah"  has  become  a  part  of  the  reli- 
gious life  of  England.  "  It  has  fed  the  hungry,"  says  Burney, 
"  clothed  the  naked,  fostered  the  orphan,  and  enriched  suc- 
ceeding managers  of  oratorios  more  than  any  single  musical 
production  in  this  or  any  other  country.  This  sacred  oratorio, 
as  it  was  at  first  called,  on  account  of  the  words  being  wholly 
composed  of  genuine  texts  of  Scripture,  appearing  to  stand  in 
such  high  estimation  with  the  public,  Handel,  actuated  by 
motives  of  purest  benevolence  and  humanity,  formed  the 
laudable  resolution  of  performing  it  annually  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Foundling  Hospital,  which  resolution  was  constantly 
put  in  practice  to  the  end  of  his  life,  under  his  own  direction, 
and  long  after  his  death  by  others,  and  in  consequence  of  these 
performances  the  benefactions  to  charity  in  less  than  twenty 
years  amounted  to  over  ;£  10,000." 

Handel  composed  nineteen  English  oratorios:  Esther (1720),   Handel's 
Deborah  (1733),  Athalia  (1733),  Saul  (1738),  Israel  (1738),   %£%£ 
Messiah  (1741),    Samson   (1741),  Joseph    (1743),   Hercules 
(1744),  Belshazzar  (1744),  Occasional  (1746),  Judas  Macca- 
beus (1746),  Alexander  Balus  (1747),  Joshua  (1747),  Solomon 


224  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

(1748),  Susanna  (1748),  Theodora  (1749),  Jephthah  (1751), 
Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth  (1757). 

His  five  great  Te  Deums  are  Utrecht  (1713),  Chandos 
(1718-1720),  Queen  Caroline's  (1737),  and  Dettingen  (1743). 
He  composed  two  Italian  oratorios,  one  German  passion,  six 
psalms,  twenty  anthems,  four  odes,  twenty-four  chamber 
duets,  ninety-four  cantatas,  nineteen  English  songs,  sixteen 
Italian  airs  and  canzonets,  seven  French  songs,  two  Italian 
and  two  English  serenatas,  the  finest  of  which  is  "  Acis  and 
Galatea." 

Subjects  of  Handel's  oratorios  hold  the  middle  ground  between  the 
the  secular  and  church  styles  of  his  time.  He  was  the  medi- 
ator between  these  two  styles,  as  embodied  in  the  operas  of 
Scarlatti  and  his  school,  and  the  church  music  of  Italian  com- 
posers after  Palestrina.  Biblical  history  furnished  the  most 
universal  and  popular  subjects  for  his  genius.  The  older 
oratorios  of  German  composers,  like  Isaac,  Senfl,  and  Schiitz, 
were  conceived  in  the  strict  church  style,  in  which  the  chorals 
sung  by  the  congregation  formed  an  indispensable  part.  The 
subjects  were  almost  invariably  taken  from  the  New  Testament, 
and  were  directed  to  the  Passion  of  Jesus.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  great  sacred  works  of  Bach ;  the  church  style  charac- 
terizes them  throughout. 

Handel  took  a  wider  range.  His  "  Hercules  "  and  "Alex- 
ander Balus  "  are  secular  oratorios,  and  his  sacred  oratorios 
are  drawn  from  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  The 
heroes  of  Jewish  history, — Judas  Maccabeus,  Samson,  Joshua, 
Saul,  etc.,  —  are  represented  in  a  combined  narrative  and  dra- 
matic form.  They  are  musical  epics.  Dramatic  representa- 
tion and  portrayal  of  character  predominate,  as  in  the  epic 
poem ;  whereas  lyric  expression,  devout  prayer,  and  worship 
are  more  characteristic  of  the  older  form  of  passion  music. 
"The  Messiah"  belongs  to  the  latter  class.  In  this,  his 
greatest  work,  there  are  no  personalities,  but  ideal  voices  to 
express  the  religious  and  devotional  feelings  of  the  Christian 


HANDEL  AND  BACH  225 

world  ;  real  personations  were  impossible,  owing  to  the  selec- 
tion of  isolated  texts  from  all  parts  of  the  Scriptures.  With 
the  exception  of  "  The  Messiah"  and  "  Israel  in  Egypt  "  his 
oratorios  are  musical  dramas.  In  "  Samson,"  for  instance, 
the  characters  are  Samson,  Delilah,  Micah,  Manoah,  the 
chorus  of  Israelites  in  opposition  to  the  chorus  of  Philistines, 
the  heathen  priests  of  Dagon  against  the  maidens  of  Delilah. 
All  these  are  treated  dramatically  and  are  sharply  defined  by 
the  music. 

Notwithstanding  the  lyric  beauty,  pathos,  and  brilliancy  of  Importance 
his  solos,  the  most  important  element  of  his  oratorios  is  the 
choruses.  In  grandeur,  sublimity,  and  dramatic  fire  and 
effectiveness  they  have  never  been  equaled.  In  "  Samson," 
"  Israel  in  Egypt,"  "Judas  Maccabeus,"  and  others,  it  seems 
as  though  the  whole  Jewish  people  were  giving  united  voice 
to  their  sentiments.  His  choruses  are  elemental,  like  the 
forces  of  nature,  —  the  ocean  surge  or  Niagara.  They  sweep 
onward  with  irresistible  power,  yet  do  not  destroy  us,  but  lift 
us  up  to  a  sublime  height.  His  choruses  are  the  only  effect- 
ive ones  for  a  very  large  mass  of  voices.  They  have  been 
impressively  sung  by  four  thousand  voices  or  more  in  the 
Crystal  Palace  at  the  Handel  festivals. 

Handel  composed  three  German  operas:  Almira  (1704), 
Nero  (1705),  and  Florindo  und  Daphne  (1708),  all  of  which 
were  produced  on  the  Hamburg  stage.  Among  his  thirty- 
nine  Italian  operas,  the  following  are  the  most  prominent : 
Rinaldo  (1711),  Radamisto  (1720),  Serse  (1738)  (containing 
the  popular  aria  "  My  Plane  Tree,"  known  under  the  name 
of  "Handel's  Largo"),  and  Deidamia  (1740). 

Handel  stood  next  to  Bach  in  the  field  of  instrumental 
music.  He  was  a  great  organist,  not  on  account  of  his  techni- 
cal skill  but  of  his  inspired  improvisations  and  contrapuntal 
facility.  He  composed  twenty-one  organ  concertos.  For  the 
clavichord  (harpsichord)  he  composed  two  sets  of  suites 
(which  contain  the  popular  variations  called  "  The  Harmonious 


226  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Blacksmith"  and  the  superb  "Fugue  in  E  minor"),  four 
minuets  and  a  march,  and  fourteen  "  pieces."  His  orchestral 
works  are  his  "  Water  Music "  in  twenty-one  movements, 
written  for  his  patron  George  I,  concertante,  twelve  grand 
concertos,  fireworks  music,  forest  music,  overture,  hornpipe, 
and  six  concertos  for  oboe,  etc.  His  chamber  music  con- 
sists of  twelve  sonatas,  thirteen  trios,  two  sonatas  for  vio- 
lins, a  sonata  for  oboe,  violin,  and  viola,  and  a  sonata  in 
five  parts. 

Handel's  influence  on  instrumental  music  was  far  less  than 
his  great  contemporary's,  but  as  a  choral  master  he  reigns 
supreme.  "  In  his  breadth  and  flow  of  melody  and  the  pic- 
turesqueness  of  his  grand  yet  simple  conception  he  was 
the  glorified  apotheosis  of  the  purely  contrapuntal  vocal 
music.  .  .  .  The  whole  tone  of  his  mind  and  genius  were 
singularly  attuned  to  the  best  features  of  English  character." 
He  lived  in  England  most  of  his  life,  and  became  a  natu- 
ralized Englishman  in  1726.  A  German  in  his  learning,  an 
Italian  in  his  vocal  style,  and  an  Englishman  in  his  simplicity, 
independence,  and  healthy  understanding,  he  was  yet  more  than 
a  cosmopolitan.  Like  Mozart  he  had  his  own  individuality, 
his  own  distinctive  style ;  the  essence  of  the  Handelian  style 
is  simplicity  and  majesty.  His  choral  works  are  conceived 
on  a  majestic  and  colossal  scale.  The  fame  and  popularity  of 
Handel  became  universal  before  his  death.  He  is  one  of  the 
grandest  personalities  in  the  history  of  music. 

Sebastian  Bach  represents,  in  his  famous  passions,  the 
highest  attainment  of  church  music,  and  marks  the  culmi- 
nation of  the  older  forms  of  instrumental  music.  He  was  the 
forerunner  of  Beethoven  and  of  the  modern  romantic  school 
of  instrumental  composition,  —  the  first  great  master  in  this 
branch  of  the  art. 

the  recog-  The  influence  of  Handel's  music  was  immediate  and  uni- 
mtion  of  versal,  but  more  than  three  quarters  of  a  century  elapsed  after 
genius  Bach's  death  before  his  influence  was  fully  felt.  Mozart  and 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  227 

Beethoven  had  only  a  limited  acquaintance  with  the  epoch- 
making  works  of  Bach.  Even  Bach's  own  sons  and  pupils 
did  not,  and  could  not,  appreciate  his  true  significance  as  a 
great  representative  musician.  They  wondered  at  his  organ 
playing,  his  vast  learning,  his  inexhaustible  creative  ability, 
but  they  were  too  near  to  view  him  in  the  full  light  of  history, 
as  we  are  better  able  to  do.  Had  his  sons  and  disciples  under- 
stood him,  they  would  have  taken  better  care  of  his  manu- 
scripts ;  it  is  known  that  those  which  are  preserved  are  only 
a  portion  of  all  that  he  produced.  Of  the  five  passions  which 
he  composed  only  two  are  at  hand.  A  century  elapsed  before 
the  "  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew  "  was  performed  for 
the  first  time  after  the  composer's  death,  and  this  revival 
inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the  musical  life  of  Germany.  The 
Bach  Society  was  organized  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  his 
works.  This  laudable  undertaking  has  accomplished  lasting 
results  for  musical  art.  Through  these  printed  works  the 
master  has  at  last  become  known  to  the  best  intelligence  of 
the  musical  world,  and  his  music  has  taken  an  indispensable 
place  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  most  earnest  and  enlight- 
ened musicians  and  of  the  public.  There  is  no  longer  any 
excuse  for  ignorance  and  prejudice  to  belittle  the  genius  of 
Bach,  to  deny  him  equality  with  Handel  and  other  great  musi- 
cians. Popularity  and  an  easy  comprehension  of  a  master's 
works  are  not  always  the  infallible  criterion  of  merit.  Full 
appreciation  sometimes  comes  only  after  years,  generations, 
and  even  centuries  of  neglect. 

As   Palestrina  is  the  representative   master  of   mediaeval  Bach  the 
church  music,  so  Bach  is  the  highest  representative  of  Protes- 


tant  church  music.    In  this  field  he  is  not  only  the  most  pro-  ative  of 
foundly  subjective  artist,  but  is  equally  remarkable  for  the  church 
richness  and  wonderful  range  of  his  imagination,  and  for  his  music 
consummate  mastery  of  musical  form.    He  was  one  of  the 
most  intellectual  musicians  who  ever  lived,  yet  made  his  skill 
and  learning  subservient  to  his  emotional  nature,  which  his 


228  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

religious  fervor  ennobled  and  intensified.  Those  who  find  his 
music  cold  and  passionless  are  simply  ignorant  of  his  style, 
which  must  first  become  familiar,  or  else  they  are  incapaci- 
tated by  nature  from  being  moved  and  elevated  by  his  music. 
His  sacred  music  is  founded  in  a  large  degree  on  the  Lutheran 
chorals.  This  old  custom  of  introducing  melodies  into  the 
higher  forms  of  church  music  reached  its  perfection  in  his 
cantatas.  Many  of  the  cantatas  are  founded  on  some  particu- 
lar choral,  which  is  wrought  out  in  varied  forms  of  solo  and 
chorus.  One  of  the  most  splendid  specimens  of  this  choral 
art  is  the  cantata  on  "A  mighty  fortress  is  our  God"  (Ein' 
feste  Burg).  The  simpler  chorals,  harmonized  in  four  parts, 
which  Bach  intersperses  in  all  his  church  music  except  his 
masses,  are  the  best  types  of  the  class,  and  will  always  stand 
as  a  monument  to  his  genius.  The  melodies,  however,  were 
not  original  with  him  —  only  the  harmonies.  The  most  promi- 
nent of  Bach's  sacred  works  are  the  passions  according  to  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  John,  the  "  Christmas  Oratorio,"  the 
"Magnificat  in  D,"  and  the  "Mass  in  B  Minor."  "  The  Passion 
according  to  St.  Matthew  "  has  no  rival  in  its  special  form. 
It  is  the  highest  representation  that  has  ever  been  conceived 
in  music  of  the  trials  and  death  of  Christ.  Among  hundreds 
of  similar  works  before  and  during  Bach's  day,  his  are  the 
only  ones  that  have  lived. 

Passion  and  The  oratorio  has  replaced  the  passion,  but  the  older  form, 
oratorio  ag  compieted  by  Bach,  possesses  a  certain  reality  and  inten- 
sity of  religious  ardor  and  belief  that  not  even  the  grandest 
oratorios  of  Handel,  except  "  The  Messiah,"  can  rival.  The 
St.  Matthew  passion  music  is  a  more  deeply  subjective 
conception,  more  intensely  lyrical  and  dramatic  than  "  The 
Messiah"  ;  but  the  latter  work  will,  nevertheless,  always  be 
more  popular  and  universal,  for  it  is  more  general  in  its  text 
and  treatment.  Handel's  long  experience  with  the  public,  his 
early  Italian  training,  and  consequently  his  vocal  art  have 
rendered  his  music  more  easy  to  be  caught  by  the  ear  and 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  229 

understood  and  appreciated  by  the  great  public.  In  their 
choruses  they  are  equally  grand,  but  Handel  has  one  advantage, 
—  his  music  is  not  hard  to  sing.  Handel  expresses  more  fre- 
quently simple  grandeur  and  sublimity;  Bach,  deeper  pathos. 

As  a  contrapuntist  Bach  is  acknowledged  as  the  foremost  Bach  as  a 
of  all  masters.  No  one  has  shown  a  more  subtle  and  consum- 
mate  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  chords.  His  bold  use  of 
dissonances  found  no  parallel  in  his  own  day ;  his  ever  new 
and  striking  harmonic  progressions  render  the  study  of  his 
works  invaluable  to  the  student.  As  an  original  harmonist  he 
stands  beside  Chopin,  Wagner,  and  other  modern  masters, 
while  as  a  contrapuntist  he  towers  above  them  all.  All  the 
voices  of  his  counterpoint  are  perfectly  melodious,  and  so 
natural  that  it  seems  as  if  the  complex  structure  of  his  po- 
lyphony created  itself,  and  as  if  the  parts  could  flow  in  any 
direction  as  freely  as  water.  Within  this  sphere  he  shows 
infinite  variety  and  originality.  No  two  fugues  of  his  are 
treated  alike  ;  each  one  has  its  individual,  characteristic  theme 
and  is  worked  out  in  accordance  with  it.  Bach  could  do  this 
because  his  calm  and  simple  life  made  no  demands  on  him ; 
he  could  pursue  his  own  gropings  and  reflections  in  peace ; 
he  could  make  new  discoveries  in  the  domain  of  musical  sound 
without  being  arrested  halfway  by  external  affairs  or  practical 
considerations.  He  did  not  write  for  a  public,  but  for  himself 
and  his  ideal  critic ;  his  music,  therefore,  is  free  from  con- 
ventionalities, and  his  best  works  cannot  grow  antiquated. 
He  appears  modern  now,  and  must  remain  so,  because  he 
stood  above  fashion.  As  an  instrumental  composer  he  marks 
an  important  turning  point  in  musical  history.  The  various 
older  forms  of  the  suite,  fugue,  etc.,  found  their  ideal  in  his 
works ;  at  the  same  time,  he  gave  a  new  impetus  to  this 
branch  of  music  through  his  teaching,  and  his  unequaled 
performances  on  the  organ  and  clavichord.  There  is  no  doubt, 
also,  that  the  modern  sonata  acquired  its  first  definite  form  in 
some  of  his  compositions,  as,  for  instance,  the  Italian  concerto. 


230  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Sebastian  Bach  is  the  founder  of  modern  instrumental 
music,  and  can  be  compared  with  Beethoven  in  this  branch  of 
art,  as  he  has  been  with  Handel  in  vocal  music.  Bach,  like 
Beethoven  and  Schumann,  was  one  of  the  most  deeply  sub- 
jective poets.  He  reveals  the  full  psychological  meaning  of 
sounds ;  the  various,  individual  moods  find  their  characteristic 
expression,  and  music  reaches  at  last  its  essentially  modern 
stage,  in  which  the  spiritual  life  of  the  artist  is  revealed  to  us. 
We  crave  no  deeper  intimacy  with  men  like  Bach,  Beethoven, 
Chopin,  or  Schumann  than  is  offered  to  us  through  their 
works.  Marx  says : 

No  one  has  ever  equaled  Bach  in  depth  and  truthfulness  of  charac- 
terization. In  the  recitatives  of  the  St.  Matthew  passion  not  a  single 
tone  is  uttered  otherwise  than  with  the  aim  of  giving  characteristic 
expression  to  the  words,  by  means  of  significant  harmonic  and  melodic 
progressions.  This  is  also  true  of  his  airs  and  choruses,  and  of  many  of 
his  instrumental  compositions.  It  was  under  the  influence  of  this  deep 
insight  into  the  spiritual  life  of  the  world  of  sound  that  this  master 
developed  harmony  so  fully,  rightly,  and  significantly,  and  all  that  later 
musicians  have  discovered  and  created,  except  wild  fancies  and  transient 
whims,  may  be  traced  back  to  that  epoch  in  which  it  was  given  to  Father 
Bach  to  reveal  the  truthfulness  and  deep  spiritual  significancy  of  his  art 
in  connection  with  the  word  of  God. 

His  com-  Bach's  vocal  works  are  :  first,  his  church  cantatas  (some 

positions  have  been  lost,  but  the  Berlin  Library  contains  over  two  hun- 
dred, of  which  the  greater  part  has  been  published)  and  his 
passions  according  to  St.  Matthew  and  St.  John ;  second,  his 
double  motets,  "  Magnificat  in  D,"  masses,  and  other  church 
music,  and  several  secular  cantatas.  His  instrumental  music 
consists:  first,  of  orchestral  suites,  concerted  pieces  for 
various  orchestral  instruments,  and  solo  concertos,  sonatas, 
fugues,  etc.,  for  solo  violin  and  violoncello  —  among  which 
are  some  of  the  most  interesting  and  difficult  pieces  for  these 
instruments  ;  second,  his  clavier  (piano)  concertos  for  one, 
two,  and  three  claviers,  with  stringed  accompaniment ;  third, 
his  many  clavier  chamber  compositions,  consisting  of  preludes 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  231 

and  fugues  (including  "The  Well-Tempered  Clavichord"), 
suites,  partitas,  toccatas,  sonatas,  etc.;  and  finally,  his  numer- 
ous organ  works, — choral  variations,  preludes,  fugues,  toccatas, 
fantasias,  etc. 

Bach  reconciled  the  long  uncertainty  of  treatment  of  the  "The Well- 
old  church  modes  in  relation  to  the  modern  harmonic  system.  ciavi^' 
In  his  choral  harmonizations  and  organ  preludes  (Vorspiele)  chord" 
he  often  makes  use  of  the  church  modes,  but  the  modern 
harmonic  system  is  largely  predominant  in  his  works.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  adopt  equal  temperament  in  tuning 
(with  his  own  hands)  the  clavichord.  His  unique  and  monu- 
mental work,  "The  Well-Tempered  Clavichord"  (Das  Wohl- 
temperirte  Klavier),  was  written  to  test  the  system  of  equal 
temperament  in  tuning.  This  system  renders  available  all 
the  twelve  major  and  minor  keys  comprised  within  the 
chromatic  octave.  Before  his  time  the  system  of  tuning  was 
such  that  only  a  certain  number  of  keys  were  available.  We 
rarely  find  compositions  that  used  a  signature  of  more  than 
four  sharps  or  four  flats,  for  the  extreme  keys  were  thrown 
out  of  tune  by  the  unequal  system  of  tuning.1 

"  The  Well-Tempered  Clavichord  "  is  in  two  parts,  each 
containing  twenty-four  preludes  and  fugues,  through  all  the 
major  and  minor  keys  of  the  octave  chromatic  scale ;  as,  for 
instance,  C  major,  C  minor,  C  $  major,  C$  minor,  D  major, 
D  minor,  and  so  on.  The  first  part  was  composed  in  1722, 
the  second  part  in  1744.  "  The  Well-Tempered  Clavichord  " 
is  one  of  the  great  monuments  of  modern  music,  not  on 
account  of  its  key-scheme,  but  as  an  ideal  representation  of 
the  form  and  spirit  of  polyphonic  art,  which  Bach's  genius 
carried  to  the  highest  point  ever  reached  in  the  history  of 
music.  In  this  art  Bach  is  the  musician  of  musicians.  "  The 
Well-Tempered  Clavichord  "  has  been  called  the  "  Bible  of 
Musicians."  Schumann  said,  "  Let  it  be  your  daily  bread." 
Beethoven,  it  is  said,  always  had  a  copy  of  it  on  his  pianoforte. 

1  Grove,  articles  on  "  Temperament  "  and  "  Wohltemperirtes  Klavier." 


232  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Influence  Bach  had  a  great  influence  on  technical  execution  in  organ 

the  work  an(j  ciavichor(j  playing.  He  had  his  own  system  of  fingering, 
which  made  equal  demands  on  all  the  fingers  and  thumbs, 
and  in  organ  playing  also  on  both  feet,  heel,  and  toe.  All  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  soul,  and  body  are  required  of  the 
performer  to  do  justice  to  his  master  works.  "  The  Well- 
Tempered  Clavichord  "  may  be  termed  the  epitome  of  Bach's 
genius.  The  sovereign  master  of  the  fugue  reveals  all  the 
wealth  of  his  creative  imagination  in  this  work.  His  astonish- 
ing technical  command  and  severe  logic  of  method  are  lost 
sight  of  in  our  enjoyment  of  the  music  as  the  expression  of 
his  emotional  nature.  Some  numbers  are  character  pieces  in 
as  full  a  sense  of  the  term  as  Schumann's  "  Novelettes  "  and 
"  Fantasiestiicke."  Some  are  full  of  religious  pathos,  such  as 
(Part  i)  the  preludes  and  fugues  in  C$  minor  and  Bb  minor, 
the  prelude  in  Eb  minor  and  (Part  2)  the  fugue  in  E  major. 
Other  examples  are  lively,  gay,  or  energetic,  such  as  (Part  i) 
the  fugue  in  C  minor,  preludes  and  fugues  in  Db  major  and 
D  major,  fugue  in  Eb  major  and  (Part  2)  fugue  in  F  minor. 
The  lighter  phases  of  Bach's  genius  are  displayed  in  his 
English  and  French  suites,  partitas,  inventions,  etc.,  for  the 
clavichord.  The  old  dance  forms  were  raised  to  an  ideal 
point  by  him ;  though  contrapuntal  in  treatment,  they  are 
free  and  buoyant  in  spirit  and  charming  in  effect.  The  Eng- 
lish suites  in  G  minor  and  A  minor  are  particularly  pleasing. 
The  "  Chromatic  Fantasia  and  Fugue  "  is  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant and  remarkable  of  his  clavier  compositions.  His  Italian 
concerto  is  also  a  noteworthy  example  of  the  older  sonata. 
His  six  sonatas  for  violin  and  clavichord  are  one  of  his  noblest 
works.  His  chaconne  in  D  minor  for  solo  violin  is  unique. 

His  most  important  orchestral  work  is  the  suite  in  D, 
which  contains  the  popular  "Aria."  Bach  began  his  career 
as  a  great  organ  master ;  and  from  this  starting  point  he 
developed  an  entirely  original  style  of  vocal  music,  based  on 
instrumental  principles.  He  stands  in  marked  contrast  to 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  233 

Handel,   who   represents   the   culmination  of   the   old  vocal 
style,  based  on  true  vocal  principles. 

Notwithstanding  Bach's  wonderful  achievements  in  church,  Organ  corn- 
chamber,  and  clavier  music,  the  very  soul  of  his  genius  is  pos 
embodied  in  his  unequaled  organ  pieces.  He  may  be  termed 
the  Shakespeare  of  the  organ.  He  stands  above  all  others. 
Among  his  numerous  organ  compositions  may  be  mentioned 
his  passacaglia  in  C  minor,  toccata  in  F,  fantasia  and  fugue 
in  G  minor,  preludes  and  fugues  in  A  minor,  B  minor,  E  minor 
("  Wedge  Fugue  "),  G  major,  Eb  major  ("  St.  Ann's  Fugue  "), 
and  six  trio  sonatas.  Bach's  activity  was  unending,  as  com- 
poser, performer,  director,  teacher,  music  engraver,  and  in- 
ventor of  musical  instruments.  He  was  a  model  paterfamilias, 
and  lived  only  for  his  art  and  his  family.  Bach  was  a  well- 
educated  man  himself,  and  paid  especial  attention  to  the  edu- 
cation and  musical  training  of  his  sons.  Among  his  pupils 
were  Altnikol,  Agricola,  Doles,  Vogler,  Marpurg,  Kirnberger, 
and  Krebs,  —  all  musicians  of  distinction.  Of  Bach's  twenty 
children  several  became  famous  musicians.  His  third  son, 
Karl  Philipp  Emanuel,  was  in  his  time  more  celebrated  than 
his  father. 

The  genius  of  the  Bach  family  centers  in  Sebastian.    He  Heredity  of 
is  the  typical  representative  of  this  long  line  of  musicians,  ^TuTm 
who  were  also  distinguished  for  their  moral  and  religious  the  Bach 
traits  of  character.    The  Bach  family  is  often  cited  as  fur- 
nishing most  remarkable  proof  of  the  law  of  heredity,  —  the 
transmission  of  certain  traits  of  character  and  talent  from 
generation  to  generation.    "  In  this  family,"  says  Maczewski, 
"  musical  talent  was,  as  it  were,  bequeathed,  and  it  seems 
almost  like  a  law  of  nature  that  the  scattered  rays  of  the  gift 
should  after  a  hundred  years  finally  concentrate  in  the  genius 
of  John  Sebastian."    The  progenitor  of  the  musical  branch  of 
the  Bach  family  is  traced  back  to  Hans  Bach,  who  lived  at 
Wechmar  about  I56I.1    The  most  prominent  of  the  nineteen 

1  See  Grove  for  genealogical  table  of  the  Bach  family. 


234  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

musicians  of  the  Bach  family  prior  to  Sebastian  were  the 
brothers  Johann  Christoph  and  Johann  Michael,  who  ranked 
among  the  most  worthy  composers  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Wilhelm  Friedemann  Bach  (1710-1784),  styled  the  Halle 
Bach,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sebastian.  He  was  considered  as 
the  most  gifted  of  all  his  brothers,  and  his  father  built  great 
hopes  on  him,  and  bestowed  the  utmost  care  on  his  musical 
training.  He  entered  the  University  of  Leipzig,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  as  a  talented  mathematician.  After- 
ward he  became  organist  at  Dresden  and  Halle.  In  1767  he 
resigned  his  position,  as  his  disorderly  life  made  him  careless 
and  irregular.  From  this  time  forth  he  led  a  wandering  life, 
and  finally  died  in  great  degradation  and  poverty.  He  was  the 
black  sheep  of  the  family,  and  his  life  exhibits  the  melancholy 
spectacle  of  a  ruined  genius.  Friedemann  had  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  theory  of  music ;  he  was  a  great  organ 
player  and  a  wonderful  improviser.  His  few  published  com- 
positions are  stamped  with  originality  and  power. 

Johann  Christoph  Friedrich  Bach,  known  as  the  Biickeburg 
Bach,  was  the  ninth  son  of  Sebastian.  His  numerous  com- 
positions do  credit  to  the  family. 

Johann  Christian  Bach,  known  as  the  Milan  or  English 
Bach,  was  the  eleventh  son  of  Sebastian.  He  was  influenced 
by  Italian  music.  His  operas  achieved  popularity.  His 
clavier  compositions  were  brilliant,  and  made  him  a  favorite 
with  piano  players. 
Emanuel  Karl  Philipp  Emanuel  Bach  (1717-1788),  called  the  Ber- 

lin or  Hamburg  Bach,  was  the  third  son  of  Sebastian.  His 
remarkable  intelligence  led  his  father  to  give  him  an  aca- 
demic training  ;  and  at  the  same  time  to  have  him  thoroughly 
instructed  in  music,  especially  in  clavichord  playing.  He 
studied  law  at  Leipzig  and  Frankfort,  and  had  hardly  com- 
pleted his  university  studies  when  he  received  an  invitation 
from  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  afterwards  Frederick  the 
Great,  to  accept  a  musical  position  at  court.  He  remained  in 


HANDEL  AND   BACH  235 

this  service  for  a  number  of  years,  but  resigned  his  place  in 
1767,  being  invited  to  succeed  Telemann  as  musical  director 
at  Hamburg,  where  he  continued  to  live  until  his  death.  By 
his  daily  practice  in  extemporaneous  playing  Emanuel  Bach  • 
acquired  a  freedom  and  elegance  of  style  matched  by  no 
other  of  his  time.  His  position  and  intercourse  with  high 
society  were  not  without  good  influence  on  his  music.  He 
possessed  hardly  a  tithe  of  the  genius  of  his  father,  but  as 
he  lived  more  in  the  world,  he  became  a  man  of  fashion  and 
popularity  ;  his  name  was  far  better  known  than  his  father's, 
and  leading  musicians  looked  up  to  him  as  the  great  authority. 
Even  young  Mozart  said  of  him,  "He  is  the  father,  we  are 
mere  children.  Those  of  us  who  can  do  anything  right  in 
music  learned  it  of  him." 

As  a  vocal  composer  Emanuel  Bach  was  inferior.     It  was  Bumey's 
chiefly  as  a  clavichord  player  and  composer  that  he  took  the 
first  rank.    His  refined  style  and   finish  of  execution  were  fiach 
unequaled.    Burney  paid  him  a  visit  at  Hamburg,  and  thus 
describes  the  man  and  his  performance  : 

After  dinner  I  prevailed  upon  him  to  sit  down  again  to  a  clavichord,  and 
he  played  with  little  intermission  till  near  eleven  o'clock  at  night.  During 
this  time  he  grew  so  animated  and  possessed  that  he  not  only  played  but 
looked  like  one  inspired.  His  eyes  were  fixed,  his  underlip  fell,  and  drops 
of  perspiration  stood  on  his  countenance.  He  said  if  he  were  to  be  set 
to  work  frequently  in  this  manner,  he  should  grow  young  again.  His 
performance  to-day  convinced  me  of  what  I  had  suggested  before  from 
his  works,  that  he  is  not  only  one  of  the  greatest  composers  for  keyed 
instruments  who  ever  existed  but  the  best  player  in  point  of  expression  ; 
for  others,  perhaps,  have  had  as  rapid  execution;  however,  he  possesses 
every  style,  though  he  chiefly  confines  himself  to  the  expressive. 

Emanuel  Bach's  celebrated  treatise  "  On  the  true  art  of  play- 
ing the  clavichord"  contains  the  principles  of  all  good  piano 
playing. 

Emanuel  Bach  produced  numerous  works  in  all  branches  of 
music.  His  vocal  works  comprise  two  oratorios,  sanctus  for 
two  choirs,  twenty-two  passions,  cantatas,  and  songs,  nearly 


236  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

all  of  which  are  forgotten.  His  instrumental  works  are  more 
interesting,  especially  his  clavier  sonatas,  which  have  histori- 
cal value  as  marking  the  transition  between  the  older  and 
modern  styles.  Emanuel  Bach  is  the  connecting  link  between 
Sebastian  Bach  and  Haydn.  He  wrote  two  hundred  and  ten 
solo  pieces  for  the  clavichord,  consisting  of  sonatas,  fantasias, 
and  rondos;  fifty-two  concertos  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ment ;  eighteen  symphonies,  etc.  He  gave  a  lighter  and  freer 
form  to  the  sonata.  The  older  strictness  of  thematic  treat- 
ment was  abandoned ;  the  homophonous  style  predominates 
throughout.  Though  his  music  lacks  depth  of  feeling,  it  is 
brilliant,  graceful,  elegant,  and  finished ;  it  furnished  the 
germs  which  under  the  influence  of  Haydn's  genius  sprang 
into  life  and  bore  rich  fruit. 

Franz  Franz  Joseph  Haydn,  "  the  father  of  the  symphony  and 

Haydn  quartet,"  was  born  in  1732,  at  Rohrau  in  Austria,  of  humble 
parents.  As  a  mere  child  he  astonished  people  by  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  ear  and  the  beauty  of  his  voice.  He  soon 
learned  to  play  most  of  the  instruments  then  in  use.  In 
1740  he  entered  the  Canto rei  of  St.  Stephen's  at  Vienna  as 
boy  singer.  He  now  received  instruction  in  Latin,  writing 
and  arithmetic,  singing,  clavier  and  violin  playing.  But, 
strange  to  say,  no  instruction  was  given  him  in  musical 
theory  and  composition,  yet  he  began  to  compose  by  instinct. 
When  his  voice  broke  he  lost  his  place  in  the  choir,  and  was 
thrown  on  the  world,  penniless  and  friendless,  until  he  found 
one  friend  in  a  singer,  who  gave  him  shelter.  Subsequently 
he  obtained  a  few  pupils,  and  was  enabled  to  rent  an  attic. 
Secluded  there  he  devoted  himself  to  study  and  composition. 
Unaided  by  a  teacher  he  mastered  the  principles  of  fugue 
contained  in  the  "  Gradus  "  of  Fux  and  studied  at  his  worm- 
eaten  clavichord  the  sonatas  of  Emanuel  Bach.  Haydn  is  per- 
haps the  only  great  composer  who  was  entirely  self-taught. 
Under  this  drawback  we  marvel  at  his  rare  mastery  of  coun- 
terpoint and  technical  skill  in  composition.  No  doubt  his 


HAYDN  237 

self-reliance  aided  his  inventiveness,  for  he  was  the  creator 
of  the  classic  form  of  the  symphony  and  quartet. 

The  young  Haydn  had  the  good  luck  to  make  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Porpora,  who  proposed  that  he  should  become  his 
accompanist.  His  association  with  this  distinguished  vocal 
master  proved  to  be  of  great  service  to  him,  for  he  thus 
acquired  the  Italian  vocal  style. 

Under  the  patronage  of  a  wealthy  amateur,  von  Fiirn- 
berg,  Haydn  wrote  his  first  string  quartets.  In  1759  he  was 
appointed  musical  director  to  Count  Morzini,  who  had  a  good 
orchestra  at  his  country  seat.  Here  Haydn  composed  his 
"First  Symphony"  in  D,  —  a  small  work  in  three  movements 
for  violins,  viola,  cello  and  bass,  two  oboes,  and  two  horns. 
His  happy,  playful  nature  is  expressed  in  this  first  symphony, 
as  in  all  his  later  works. 

In  1761  Haydn  received  the  most  important  appointment  Chapel- 
of  his  life,  as  chapelmaster  to  Prince  Esterhazy,  one  of  the  p^fj ' 
foremost  of  the  Austrian  nobility.  This  position  exerted  Esterhazy 
an  important  influence  on  his  career.  He  now  produced 
numerous  compositions  —  symphonies,  quartets,  operas,  and 
church  music  —  and  his  reputation  grew  year  by  year.  He 
remained  in  this  service  until  the  death  of  the  prince  in  1790. 
These  thirty  years  with  Esterhazy  were  of  inestimable  value 
to  Haydn's  development  as  a  composer,  but  the  crowning 
work  of  his  life  was  not  yet  accomplished.  This  period,  like 
Handel's  long  service  as  an  opera  composer,  prepared  him 
for  a  higher  sphere  of  action ;  and  in  both  instances  this 
change  seemed  to  be  more  the  result  of  circumstances  than 
of  selection.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  Haydn  would  have 
fulfilled  his  high  mission  if  he  had  always  stayed  in  Vienna 
and  had  not  made  his  memorable  and  eventful  journey  to 
England.  Salomon,  who  was  connected  with  the  Hanover 
Square  concerts  in  London,  had  long  besought  Haydn  to 
visit  England,  but  with  no  success,  until  he  happened  to  be 
in  Vienna  at  the  moment  when  Haydn  had  lost  his  position 


238 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Visit  to 
England 


Composi- 
tions 


by  the  death  of  Prince  Esterhazy.  He  persuaded  Haydn  to 
take  this  step  in  December,  1790,  and  on  his  arrival  in  Lon- 
don he  was  surrounded  by  enthusiastic  friends.  In  England 
a  new  world  was  opened  to  Haydn ;  he  was  honored  beyond 
all  others  of  his  profession,  and  reckoned  the  years  spent 
there,  in  which  he  composed  his  noblest  symphonies  and 
quartets,  as  among  the  happiest  of  his  long  life.  The  twelve 
symphonies  written  for  the  Salomon  concerts  are  his  best, 
and  are  the  principal  ones  heard  nowadays.  Haydn  often 
declared  that  he  became  famous  in  Germany  by  means  of  his 
triumphs  in  England.  His  oratorios  "The  Creation"  and 
"  The  Seasons  "  are  rightly  considered  as  the  fruits  of  his 
English  experiences,  though  he  did  not  compose  them  until 
his  return  to  Vienna  after  his  second  visit  to  England.  The 
appreciation  and  admiration  which  now  greeted  him  at  home 
as  well  as  abroad  strengthened  his  enthusiasm  and  elevated 
his  musical  conceptions.  "The  Creation"  was  composed  in 
1797,  and  its  first  performance  capped  the  climax  of  his  fame. 
Haydn  died  in  1809  at  the  age  of  seventy-seven  years. 

His  indefatigable  industry  is  shown  in  the  immense  number 
of  works  he  produced.  The  list  embraces  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  symphonies,  seventy-seven  string  quartets,  thirty- 
five  string  trios,  thirty-one  concertos,  sixty-six  wind  and  string 
compositions,  fifty-three  piano  sonatas,  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five  pieces  for  the  baryton,  and  capriccios,  diverti- 
mentos, fantasias,  etc.,  for  various  instruments.  His  vocal 
works  consist  of  five  oratorios,  nineteen  operas,  fifteen  masses 
and  other  church  music,  songs,  and  canons. 

Haydn's  genius  was  displayed  in  almost  every  form  of 
music.  No  German  master  ever  surpassed  him  in  vocal 
technic  and  style.  His  operas  are  forgotten,  but  his  masses 
live,  and  rank  among  the  best  church  music.  They  are  per- 
formed more  frequently  than  any  others  in  the  churches  of 
Germany.  His  "  Stabat  Mater"  is  a  beautiful  work,  full  of 
religious  sentiment.  His  oratorio  "The  Creation"  rivals  "  The 


HAYDN  239 

Messiah"  and  "Elijah"  in  popularity.  It  is  as  fresh  and 
charming  to-day  as  when  it  was  first  written.  Though  not 
so  profound  and  sublime  as  "The  Messiah"  and  the  St. 
Matthew  passion,  it  has  qualities  they  do  not  possess  ;  the 
orchestral  part  is  far  more  artistic,  and  the  solos  and  con- 
certed numbers  are  more  modern  in  style.  His  "Creation," 
"  Seasons,"  and  other  vocal  works  are  distinguished  for  charm 
and  beauty  of  melody,  finish  of  style,  tasteful  ornamentation, 
and  variety  of  form.  Like  all  his  music  they  reflect  the 
happy,  genial  nature  of  the  artist. 

As  an  instrumental  composer  Haydn  holds  a  position  of  Inventor  of 
the  highest  importance  in  the  history  of  music.  His  creative 
originality  cannot  be  overestimated.  He  is  justly  considered 
as  the  real  inventor  of  the  modern  symphony,  sonata,  and 
string  quartet ;  for  though  the  general  outlines  of  these  forms 
existed  before  his  time,  it  is  he  who  made  them  classical 
for  all  time.  The  symphony  and  concerto  sprang  from  the 
old  Italian  overture  in  three  movements,  —  fast,  slow,  fast. 
Sammartini  was  one  of  the  first  to  compose  orchestral  sym- 
phonies. The  early  symphonies  of  Haydn  are  in  three-move- 
ment form,  but  his  mature  symphonies  have  four  movements, 
the  additional  movement  being  the  minuet,  which  is  intro- 
duced before  the  finale.  Haydn  extended  the  several  move- 
ments in  their  larger  and  smaller  divisions.  He  developed  a 
highly  important  means  of  giving  unity  and  variety  through 
the  so-called  free  thematic  treatment  of  a  musical  idea  or 
motive.  In  Haydn's  instrumental  music  we  observe  this  evo- 
lution of  a  long  movement  out  of  little  motives,  the  smallest 
members  of  a  musical  thought,  which  recur  again  and  again 
under  constantly  changing  conditions  of  key,  melody,  har- 
mony, position,  rhythm,  and  instrumentation;  ever  expressing 
new  meaning,  beauty,  and  variety,  without  losing  the  central 
idea  of  the  piece.  This  free  form  reflects  vividly  and  pre- 
cisely all  the  emotions  of  the  tone  poet,  —  joyful  or  sad,  humor- 
ous or  gloomy,  playful  or  grotesque.  Every  mood  of  feeling 


240  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

is  expressed  more  directly  and  subjectively  in  these  free 
thematic  compositions  than  by  the  older  and  stricter  forms  of 
counterpoint.  In  the  fugue,  canon,  and  other  forms  of  imita- 
tive counterpoint,  the  several  voices  or  parts  are  treated  alike 
as  individual,  melodious  members,  the  bass  being  as  melodious 
as  the  soprano,  the  tenor  as  melodious  as  the  alto.  The  theme 
and  counter-theme  never  cease  to  assert  their  importance, 
though  they  may  be  relieved  by  new  motives  and  recurring 
digressions.  The  network  of  polyphony  continues  throughout. 
In  the  sonata  or  symphony,  on  the  contrary,  the  motive  or 
theme  does  not  usually  appear  in  all  the  parts  alike  in  imita- 
tion, but  may  be  confined  to  a  particular  part,  as  the  air  or 
melody,  while  the  other  parts  merely  contribute  their  accom- 
paniment to  enhance  the  effect,  having  no  independent  char- 
acter of  their  own  ;  just  as  in  a  song  the  accompaniment  may 
consist  of  full  or  broken  chords  or  parts  of  chords,  introduced 
to  enrich  the  melody.  In  a  word,  this  is  homophonous  music. 
But  this  song  form  is  only  one  form  of  free  thematic  music. 
The  polyphonic  element  also  pervades  it  more  or  less  ;  and  so 
the  sonata  or  symphony  is  a  mixture  of  the  polyphonic  and 
homophonic  styles.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  harmonious 
union  of  the  melodious  style,  which  the  Neapolitans  cultivated 
so  extensively,  with  the  old  contrapuntal  style.  As  a  matter 
of  course,  if  the  melody  be  given  wholly  to  a  single  part  while 
the  other  parts  are  held  strictly  subordinate  to  it,  the  emotion 
of  the  composer  can  be  expressed  more  directly  and  intensely 
through  such  a  single  melody  than  when  all  the  parts  are  made 
equally  melodious,  for,  in  the  latter  case,  the  individual  move- 
ment of  the  several  melodies  must  be  prescribed  by  the 
demands  of  the  harmony,  of  which  they  are  equal  members. 
But  in  this  latter  case  what  is  lost  in  individual  expression  is 
compensated  for  by  the  architectural  beauty  of  form. 

Haydn's  later  symphonies  generally  open  with  a  short,  slow 
introduction  that  leads  into  the  first  allegro  movement,  which 
is  always  composed  in  the  so-called  sonata  form.  The  follow- 
ing tabular  view  will  exhibit  this  first  movement  in  detail : 


HAYDN 


241 


A.— PART  I 


Principal  theme 


Tonic  key 


Transition : 
Composed  of 
new  motives 


Modulation 


Side  Theme : 

Reminiscence  of 

principal  theme, 

leading  to  new 

motives 

Dominant,  —  or 

relative  major,  if 

movement  opens 

in  minor 


Conclusion: 
New  phrases  or 
periods  worked 
up  to  conclusion 


Dominant,  —  or 
relative  major 


B.  — MIDDLE  PART,  OR  FREE  FANTASIA 

This  contains  materials  from  the  first  part,  according  to  the  fancy  of 
the  composer.  Reminiscence  of  principal  theme,  side  theme,  transition, 
and  conclusion  may  be  employed  as  well  as  new  motives  and  passages, 
but  the  keys  of  the  first  part  must  be  avoided.  Free  modulation  is 
largely  employed.  The  middle  part  does  not  end  with  a  cadence,  but 
leads  into  the  third  part  generally  by  a  passage  with  pedal  point  on  the 
dominant. 

C.  — PART  III.  REPRISE 

Repetition  of  Part  I,  —  principal  theme,  transition,  side  theme,  and 
conclusion  in  tonic  key. 

The  second,  slow  movement  is  either  (a}  in  large  song 
form,  with  two  extended  and  repeated  divisions,  or  (b]  a 
theme  with  variations,  or  (c)  in  slow  rondo  form,  in  which  a 
recurring  melody,  often  changing  from  major  to  minor,  is 
contrasted  by  intermediate  digressions  or  episodes. 

The  third  movement  (minuet)  is  in  the  following  form : 


Part  i 


Trio 


Principal  theme 
Tonic  key 


Middle  part  . 
Modulatory  • 


.  Principal  theme 
•  Relative  key 


Middle  part  . 
Modulatory  • 


Repetition 


Principal  theme 
Tonic  key 


Middle  part 
Modulatory 


242 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Influence 
of  Haydn 
on  instru- 
mental 
music 


The  finale  (fourth  movement)  is  usually  in  rondo  form, 
though  some  of  Haydn's  finales  are  in  sonata  form.  His 
rondos  are  not  so  highly  developed  as  Beethoven's.  They 
generally  consist  of  a  light  and  piquant  principal  theme  which 
often  recurs,  being  relieved  by  intermediate  episodes.  They 
are  very  characteristic.  Here  Haydn  displayed  his  wit  and 
humor,  playfulness,  and  jollity.  It  is  not  positively  known 
whether  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  minuet  into  the 
symphony  and  string  quartet,  but  "  it  is  he,"  says  Otto  Jahn, 
"  who  gave  the  minuet  its  peculiar  and  typical  character. 
It  was  the  dance  of  the  polite  world,  and  cannot  be  listened 
to  nowadays  without  reminding  us  of  powdered  wigs  and 
knee  breeches,  or  the  dainty  little  porcelain  figures  and  en- 
gravings of  that  age,  which  provoke  a  smile  in  spite  of  our 
appreciation  of  their  graceful  merit.  Haydn  did  not  parody 
the  minuet  of  his  time,  but  divested  it  of  its  genteel  dignity  ; 
he  took  it  up  as  the  citizens  danced  it,  and  knew  how  to  throw 
into  it  popular  gayety  and  humor,  originally  foreign  to  this 
dance.  He  was  inexhaustible  in  conceits,  surprises,  and  witti- 
cisms." He  idealized  the  minuet  as  Chopin  did  the  mazurka 
and  other  Polish  dances. 

The  influence  of  Haydn  on  instrumental  music  was  univer- 
sal. He  first  prepared  the  way  for  Mozart  and  Beethoven, 
and  later  in  life  he  was  in  turn  influenced  by  them.  The  great 
symphonies  and  quartets  of  Beethoven  mark  the  culmination 
of  classical  form ;  yet  the  best  of  Haydn's,  especially  those 
composed  in  London,  will  always  claim  our  admiration  and 
interest.  It  is  true  we  miss  in  Haydn  the  grandeur  of  thought, 
dramatic  fire  and  passion,  deep  pathos,  and  massive  orchestra- 
tion of  Beethoven,  yet  we  are  fascinated  and  delighted  with  the 
joyousness,  simplicity,  and  playfulness  of  his  musical  nature. 
One  master  is  the  complement  of  the  other ;  Beethoven's  sym- 
phonies are  like  tragedies,  Haydn's  are  like  comedies. 

The  modern  art  of  orchestration  begins  with  Haydn,  so  far 
as  the  effective  treatment  of  the  string  band  is  concerned. 


HAYDN  243 

He  worked  out  the  problem  of  individualizing  the  different 
parts  of  the  harmony  and  combining  them  so  as  to  produce 
unity  of  effect.  In  making  the  string  band  the  heart  and 
center  of  the  orchestra  he  set  the  example  for  Mozart  and 
Beethoven,  but  the  true  nature  and  function  of  the  wind 
instruments  were  better  understood  by  them.  Even  Gluck 
made  a  freer  use  of  solo  wind  effects  than  Haydn,  who 
declared  that  he  did  not  learn  how  to  write  well  for  the  wind 
orchestra  until  his  old  age.  Haydn  was  the  creator  of  the  The  creator 
string  quartet,  and  in  certain  respects  he  has  never  been  sur-  string 
passed  in  this  form  of  music,  which  was  his  natural  mode  of  quartet 
expressing  his  feelings.  Quartets  were  composed  before  his 
day  by  Stamitz,  Jommelli,  Johann  Christian  Bach,  Boccherini, 
Pleyel,  and  other  contemporaries,  but  Haydn  surpassed  them 
all,  and  gave  a  new  character  to  the  quartet.  He  established 
for  all  time  what  is  designated  as  the  "  quartet  style."  His 
first  quartets  were  thin  and  insignificant  compared  with  the 
wealth  of  thought  and  beauty  of  his  later  ones.  He  individu- 
alized the  four  solo  instruments,  and  gave  them  greater  scope 
and  variety  of  effect,  so  that  they  appear  like  four  persons 
holding  conversation  with  each  other.  His  best  quartets  em- 
body the  very  essence  of  his  genius;  they  possess  inimitable 
charm  and  fascination,  Mozart  declared  that  from  Haydn  he 
first  learned  the  true  art  of  writing  quartets. 

Haydn  also  left  his  mark  on  the  piano  sonata ;  he  far 
excelled  his  model,  Emanuel  Bach.  Several  of  his  sonatas, 
as  for  example  the  two  in  Eb,  go  beyond  Mozart's,  and  fairly 
stand  beside  the  early  sonatas  of  Beethoven  in  beauty  and 
instrumental  effect.  The  trio,  for  piano,  violin,  and  violon- 
cello, was  introduced  by  Haydn,  but  it  was  reserved  for 
Beethoven  to  create  immortal  works  in  this  form. 

The  position  which  Mozart  holds  as  an  instrumental  com- 
poser is  a  relative  one  between  Haydn  and  Beethoven.  He 
was  in  many  respects  the  teacher  of  both.  Haydn  in  his  last 
symphonies  shows  the  influence  of  Mozart,  just  as  Beethoven 


244  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

does  in  his  early  works.  Both  learned  of  him  a  richer  art  of 
instrumentation.  Mozart's  wonderfully  musical  ear  and  sensi- 
bility comprehended  the  very  nature  of  the  instruments  ;  no 
one  ever  knew  how  to  treat  them  singly  or  in  combination 
better  than  he  did.  His  wind-instrumental  parts  are  distin- 
guished by  the  exquisite  beauty  of  their  cantabile.  It  was 
this  appreciation  of  the  peculiar  nature  of  each  instrument 
that  rendered  Mozart  the  indispensable  teacher  of  Haydn  and 
Beethoven,  and  a  necessary  member  of  the  group.  Mozart  did 
not  enlarge  the  general  form  of  the  sonata  and  symphony, 
for  the  thematic  periodic  structure  of  these  forms  was  already 
thoroughly  wrought  out ;  but  he  rounded  and  beautified  the 
separate  parts  and  made  a  movement  now  and  then  more 
massive.  This  is  true,  however,  only  of  his  last  three 
symphonies. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

GLUCK 

Before  the  ascendency  of  Gluck  and  Mozart,  the  opera  in 
Italy  and  France  had  developed  certain  national  characteris- 
tics, without  reaching  a  perfect  ideal  in  either  country.  The 
Hamburg  opera  of  Keiser  and  others  was  a  short-lived  attempt 
to  establish  native  German  opera ;  nor  did  Purcell  live  long 
enough  to  build  up  English  opera.  For  a  long  time  all 
Europe  was  blinded  by  the  dazzling  light  of  Italian  opera. 
The  trills  and  runs,  the  freaks  and  caprices  of  the  virtu- 
osos of  the  stage,  held  the  ear-entranced  public  in  subjection. 
This  wide  departure  from  the  original  idea  of  a  pure  musical 
drama  led  Gluck,  who  had  a  long  experience  as  a  composer 
of  conventional  Italian  operas,  to  return  to  first  principles 
and  to  attempt  to  reform  dramatic  music. 

Christoph  Wilibald,  Ritter  von  Gluck,  was  born  at  Wei-  Birth  and 
denwang,  Austria,  on  the  second  of  July,  1714.  He  received  ^.y. 
early  training  in  singing,  violin,  violoncello,  organ,  and  clavi- 
chord playing.  His  parents  belonged  to  the  household  of 
Prince  Lobkowitz,  and  the  son  found  appreciation  and 
encouragement  from  this  nobleman.  At  his  residence  in 
Vienna,  Gluck  had  the  good  fortune  to  meet  Prince  Melzi  of 
Lombardy,  who  was  so  much  pleased  with  his  performance 
on  the  violoncello  and  his  talent  for  music  that  he  appointed 
him  chamber  musician  and  invited  him  to  Milan,  where  he 
received  musical  instruction  from  Sammartini.  After  four 
years  of  study  he  produced  successfully  his  first  opera, 
"  Artaserse,"  at  Milan  in  1741.  His  reputation  soon 
spread,  and  he  was  invited  to  compose  other  works  for 
the  Italian  stage,  —  Demofoonte  (Milan,  1742),  Demetrio 

245 


246  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  Ipermnestra  (Venice,   1742),  Artamene   (Cremona)  and 
Siface  (Milan,  1743),  Fedra  (Milan,  1744),  and  Poro  (Turin, 

1745). 

Visits  to  In  1745  Gluck  accompanied  his  patron  and  friend,  Prince 

andp'aris  Lobkowitz,  to  Paris  and  London,  where  he  brought  out  several 
operas  ;  but  he  did  not  find  English  soil  favorable  to  his  music, 
for  the  Italians  exercised  absolute  control  there.  During  his 
stay  in  London  he  met  Handel,  whose  music  made  a  lasting 
impression  on  him.  Handel  consoled  him  for  his  want  of  suc- 
cess in  London,  saying,  "You  have  taken  too.much  trouble 
with  your  operas  for  this  place,  for  Englishmen  require  every- 
thing to  be  beaten  out  on  drumheads  to  please  them."  He, 
however,  did  not  praise  Gluck's  music,  which  he  considered 
detestable,  declaring  that  Gluck  knew  no  more  of  counter- 
point than  his  cook.  Gluck's  English  experience  exercised 
an  important  influence  on  his  career.  His  visit  to  Paris  gave 
him  an  opportunity  to  hear  the  operas  of  Rameau,  whose 
noble  choruses  and  recitatives  stood  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  florid  and  insipid  Italian  opera  arias.  These  foreign 
experiences  led  him  to  reflect  on  the  nature  of  his  talents  and 
ultimately  to  change  his  style.  On  his  return  to  Vienna  in 
1746  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  musical  aesthetics 
as  well  as  literature  and  language.  Two  years  later  Gluck 
produced  his  "  Semiramide  "  in  Vienna  with  brilliant  success. 
In  this  opera  he  showed  decided  progress  over  his  earlier 
works,  for  it  contains  the  germ  of  his  distinctive  dramatic  and 
musical  qualities.  In  1754  Gluck  was  appointed  director  of 
the  royal  opera,  and  held  this  position  for  ten  years ;  during 
this  period  he  composed  a  number  of  operas,  the  most  noted 
of  which  are  his  "  Clemenza  di  Tito"  and  "Orfeo."  Mean- 
while he  went  to  Rome  where  he  enjoyed  high  appreciation. 
The  pope  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Chevalier.  It  was  not 
until  almost  the  end  of  his  career  as  director  at  Vienna  that 
he  disclosed  to  the  public  his  plan  for  a  reform  of  the  opera, 
which  had  gradually  formed  in  his  mind. 


GLUCK  247 

The  production  of  his  "  Orfeo  "  in  1762  marked  the  open-  Reforms  in 
ing  of  the  most  eventful  period  of  Gluck's  life.    Hitherto  he  t   '  opera 
had  followed  the  beaten  path  of  the  Italian  opera.    Even  after 
this  date  he  composed  more  or  less  in  the  traditional  Italian 
style,  and  it  was  not  until  his  opera  "  Alceste  "  appeared  that 
he  turned  entirely  aside  from  the  old  course,  henceforth  to 
obey  no  master  but  himself.    "  Alceste  "  was  published  in 
1769.  In  his  dedication  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  Gluck 
sets  forth  the  new  principles  which  he  so  earnestly  aspired 
to  spread  abroad,  as  follows : 

When  I  undertook  to  set  "  Alceste  "  to  music,  I  resolved  to  avoid  all 
those  abuses  which  the  vanity  of  the  singers  and  the  far  too  great  com- 
plaisance of  the  composers  had  introduced  into  the  Italian  opera, — 
abuses  which  have  rendered  the  finest  and  grandest  plays  tiresome  and 
ridiculous.  I  sought  to  lead  music  back  to  its  true  object,  that  of  second- 
ing the  poem  in  order  to  intensify  the  passion  it  expresses,  and  add 
interest  to  the  dramatic  situations,  without  interrupting  the  action  or 
marring  it  by  superfluous  ornaments.  I  believed  that  music  should  be 
to  poetry  what  the  liveliness  of  the  colors  and  a  happy  mixture  of  light 
and  shade  are  to  a  well-ordered  drawing,  which  animate  the  figures  with- 
out destroying  their  outlines.  I  have  for  this  reason  taken  particular  care 
not  to  interrupt  the  actor  in  the  fire  of  his  dialogue  in  order  to  intro- 
duce a  tedious  ritornelle,  nor  to  stop  him  in  the  middle  of  a  phrase  on 
a  favorite  vowel  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  flexibility  of  his  voice, 
or  that  the  orchestra  might  give  him  time  to  exhaust  his  breath  on  a 
long-holding  note.  Furthermore,  I  have  not  thought  it  right  to  hurry 
through  the  second  part  of  an  aria,  when  it  might  be  precisely  the  most 
passionate  and  interesting  moment,  in  order  to  repeat  the  words  four 
times  invariably  or  to  finish  the  aria  where  the  sense  did  not  permit  it 
to  end  properly,  merely  to  allow  the  singer  to  exhibit  his  skill  and  grace 
in  varying  the  passage  at  pleasure.  In  short,  I  wished  to  banish  all  those 
abuses  against  which  good  taste  has  long  protested  in  vain. 

My  idea  was  that  the  overture  ought  to  indicate  the  subject  and 
prepare  the  spectators  for  the  character  of  the  piece  they  were  about  to 
see  ;  that  the  instruments  should  be  introduced  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  interest  and  passion  in  the  words  ;  and  that  it  was  necessary 
above  all  to  avoid  making  too  great  a  disparity  between  the  recitative 
and  the  air  of  a  dialogue,  so  as  to  break  the  sense  of  a  period  or 
awkwardly  to  interrupt  the  movement  and  animation  of  a  scene.  I  also 
thought  that  my  chief  endeavor  should  be  to  attain  a  grand  simplicity, 


248  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

and  consequently  I  have  avoided  making  a  parade  of  difficulties  at  the 
cost  of  clearness  ;  I  have  set  no  value  on  novelty  as  such,  unless  it  was 
naturally  suggested  by  the  situation  and  suited  to  the  expression  ;  in 
short,  there  was  no  rule  which  I  did  not  consider  myself  bound  to 
sacrifice  for  the  sake  of  effect. 

The  full  force  of  these  principles  applied  only  to  the  degen- 
erate opera  seria  of  his  time ;  they  were  not  entirely  original 
with  him,  for  they  had  already  been  accepted  and  realized  in 
part  by  other  musicians. 

The  invita-  The  doubtful  success  of  "  Orfeo "  and  "  Alceste "  in 
j  aris  yjenna  je(j  Qluck  to  seek  honor  and  appreciation  in  Paris, 
which  was  then  the  center  of  the  intellectual  and  artistic 
world.  He  had  an  ardent  admirer  in  Du  Rollet,  a  French 
writer,  who  adapted  Racine's  "  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  "  as  an 
opera  text  for  him.  On  its  completion  Du  Rollet  made  an 
effort  to  interest  the  French  public  in  the  matter.  Gluck 
himself  directed  an  article  to  the  Mercure  de  France,  in  which 
he  wrote,  "  It  is  my  cherished  desire  to  create  music  which 
shall  respond  to  the  taste  of  all  nations,  and  remove  all  the 
ridiculous  differences  of  national  music."  During  the  same 
year  (1/73)  Gluck  was  invited  to  Paris  through  the  influence 
of  his  former  royal  pupil  Marie  Antoinette.  Without  her  all- 
powerful  influence  Gluck  would  probably  have  failed  to  get 
his  work  on  the  stage.  "  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  "  was  brought  out 
in  Paris  in  1774,  but  it  had  only  a  divided  success  at  first; 
party  spirit  ran  high,  and  it  was  not  until  after  repeated  per- 
formances of  the  work  that  opposing  voices  were  silenced. 
The  battles  between  the  admirers  of  comic  opera,  or  "Buffon- 
ists,"  and  the  adherents  of  Lully  and  Rameau,  or  "  Anti- 
buffonists,"  were  now  renewed  with  fiercer  fury  than  ever. 
The  old  French  opera  party  believed  that  they  had  found  a 
champion  in  Gluck,  as  one  who  represented  in  part  the  tradi- 
tional ideas  to  which  they  were  so  firmly  wedded  ;  but  while 
Gluck  laid  great  stress  on  perfect  declamation  and  dramatic 
action,  he  far  surpassed  Lully  and  Rameau  in  the  tragic  depth 


GLUCK  249 

of  his  characterization,  dramatic   power,  beauty  of   melody, 
choral  effects,  and  richness  of  orchestration. 

In  1774  Gluck's  "  Orfeo  ed  Euridice  "  was  produced  at  Rivalry  with 
the  Academic,  and  made  a  profound  impression.  He  never 
wrote  anything  greater  than  the  second  act  of  this  immor- 
tal work ;  time  has  proved  it  to  be  the  most  popular  of  all 
his  operas.  Gluck  rearranged  his  "  Alceste  "  for  the  French 
stage  and  produced  it  in  Paris,  in  1776,  with  brilliant  success. 
He  then  returned  to  Vienna  to  work  on  the  texts  of  "  Roland  " 
and  "  Armide  "  by  Quinault.  During  his  absence  the  Italian 
party  left  no  stone  unturned  to  advance  their  own  interests, 
and  invited  the  celebrated  Italian  composer  Piccinni  to  Paris 
as  their  champion.  French  society  was  now  divided  as  to 
the  merits  of  these  rivals,  and  the  music  they  were  sup- 
posed to  represent.  In  polite  circles  it  was  no  longer  asked, 
"  Is  he  a  Jansenist,  a  Molinist,  a  philosopher,  or  a  pietist  ? " 
but  "Is  he  a  Gluckist  or  a  Piccinnist  ?"  The  first  literary 
men  in  France  took  part  in  this  war  of  opinion,  armed  with 
their  pens.  Rousseau,  Abbe  Armand,  and  other  able  writers 
stood  on  Gluck's  side  ;  Marmontel,  La  Harpe,  and  others,  on 
the  Italian's  side  ;  while  Baron  von  Grimm  tried  to  be  neutral, 
but  was  evidently  Italian  in  his  sympathies.  Marmontel 
adapted  Quinault's  "Roland"  for  Piccinni  to  compose  —  the 
same  subject  that  Gluck  was  at  work  upon.  As  Piccinni  did 
not  understand  a  word  of  French  it  went  hard  with  him,  and 
he  began  to  fear  that  his  star  was  not  in  the  ascendant ;  but 
at  last  his  "  Roland  "  was  finished  and  ready  for  performance. 
When  he  started  for  the  theater  he  took  leave  of  his  family 
as  though  he  were  going  to  execution.  They  were  in  tears, 
and  his  friends  were  in  a  state  of  despair,  but  he  consoled 
them  with  the  words,  "  Come,  my  children,  this  is  unreason- 
able. Remember  we  are  not  savages.  We  are  living  with 
the  politest  and  kindest  nation  in  Europe.  If  they  do  not 
like  me  as  a  musician,  they  will  at  all  events  respect  me  as 
a  stranger."  His  "  Roland "  had  a  brilliant  success ;  even 


250 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Gluck's 
music 

superior  in 

dramatic 


Piccinni's  enemies  had  to  admit  that  this  opera  was  good 
music,  although  they  rightly  held  that  it  lacked  dramatic 
strength.  For  a  time  Gluck's  light  was  obscured.  Piccinni's 
opera  held  its  place  on  the  stage  and  the  disputes  still 
continued. 

The  climax  of  Gluck's  career  was  reached  by  his  "  Iphigenie 
en  Tauride"  in  Paris,  May  18,  1779.  This  epoch-making  work 
marks  the  highest  attainment  of  his  genius,  the  complete  ful- 
fillment of  his  artistic  principles.  Piccinni's  opera  on  the  same 
subject  was  cast  into  oblivion,  and  French  opera  in  the  sense 
of  Lully  and  Rameau  no  longer  existed.  Gluck  was  the  first 
German  dramatic  composer  to  conquer  the  French  ;  not  long 
after  his  death  he  was  claimed  by  them  as  a  national  composer. 

"  Iphigenie  en  Tauride  "  contains  many  thrilling  dramatic 
effects  and  musical  beauties.  Among  them  are  the  airs  of 
Thoas  and  Pylades  ;  "  and  beyond  all,  the  sleep  of  Orestes  — 
the  heart-breaking  remorse  of  the  deceitful  parricide,  the 
spirited  choruses,  and  the  barbarous  Scythian  dances." 

Gluck's  latest  opera  was  "  Echo  et  Narcisse  "  ;  it  was  pro- 
duced in  Paris,  in  1779,  without  much  success.  Gluck  retired 
to  Vienna  in  1  780,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  days  in  the 
enjoyment  of  fame  and  fortune.  He  died  November  15,  1787. 

The  subjects  of  most  of  the  operas  of  Gluck  are  drawn 
from  Greek  tragedy  as  represented  by  the  French  dramatists. 

J  J 

Their  plays  are  not  comparable  to  the  ancient  prototype  in 
Senera^  conception  nor  in  the  treatment  of  special  details. 
Gluck  showed  himself  greatly  superior  to  the  French  poets  in 
endowing  the  characters  with  tragic  grandeur,  nobility,  and 
pathos.  He  had  a  keen  understanding  and  profound  apprecia- 
tion of  dramatic  characterization  ;  though,  like  most  opera 
composers,  his  plots  are  not  developed  so  as  to  hold  our 
interest  fast  until  the  climax  and  solution  of  the  conflict  have 
been  reached.  They  are  rather  a  series  of  situations,  con- 
nected with  one  another  from  necessity,  in  order  merely  to 
furnish  the  composer  with  a  text.  It  is  remarkable  that  Gluck, 


GLUCK  251 

who  stood  out  "so  boldly  against  the  musical  inconsistencies 
and  defects  of  his  time,  should  not  have  tried  to  improve  the 
construction  of  the  librettos.  But  his  characters  live,  like 
Shakespeare's.  Above  all,  we  are  struck  by  the  simple  gran- 
deur and  nobility  of  his  musical  conceptions,  though  in  the 
librettos  which  were  furnished  him  not  a  trace  of  grandeur 
is  discernible.  "  As  Winckelmann  was  able  to  recognize  the 
genuine  spirit  of  Greek  art  from  the  works  of  art  of  a  later 
period,"  says  Jahn,  "  so  Gluck  grasped  the  true  grandeur 
that  lay  hidden  in  the  principal  situations  of  his  operas,  which 
the  poet  had  been  unable  to  bring  to  light,  and  while  he 
believed  he  was  merely  following  out  the  idea  of  the  poet 
faithfully,  he  reproduced  out  of  his  own  nature  something 
new  and  great.  The  truth  and  simplicity  of  his  representa- 
tions, the  elevated  bearing  and  noble  pride  that  animate  the 
figures  of  his  operas,  in  short,  all  the  traits  of  artistic  gran- 
deur are  what  constitutes  his  imperishable  fame." 

Gluck  was  a  great  master  of  the  recitative ;  he  carefully  Masterly 
allotted  every  syllable  its  proper  time  and  accent,  and  his  recttative0 
declamation,  therefore,  is  faultlessly  perfect.  The  French  and  chorus 
language  favored  him  in  this  respect.  He  did  not  allow  the 
air  the  same  prominence  that  the  Italians  did  ;  he  would  not 
sacrifice  one  iota  of  dramatic  truth  to  sensuous  charm  and 
beauty  of  melody.  His  airs  are  in  simple  form,  divested  of 
all  richness  of  ornament.  Many  of  them  are  noble  and  beau- 
tiful in  their  simplicity,  but  in  general  they  lack  the  full  inspira- 
tion of  a  divine  musical  nature  like  Mozart's.  Gluck's  thoughts 
evidently  did  not  flow  easily  and  spontaneously.  He  was  not 
well  skilled  in  polyphonic  writing.  This  is  plainly  evident  in 
those  places  where  the  several  dramatic  characters  are  made 
to  declaim  or  sing  in  concert  with  each  other ;  he  then  found 
it  difficult  to  preserve  the  musical  individuality  of  each,  as 
Mozart  did  with  such  wonderful  art. 

Gluck  gave  great  prominence  to  the  chorus  in  his  operas ; 
it  fulfilled  in  a  measure  its  original  function  in  the  ancient 


252  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

tragedy.  Impressive  examples  are  the  chorus  of  the  Spirits 
of  Rage  and  Hate  in  "  Armide  "  and  the  chorus  of  Furies  in 
the  second  act  of  "Orfeo."  No  dramatic  master  before  or 
since  has  written  more  tragic  and  thrilling  choruses. 
Orchestral  In  dramatic  orchestration  Gluck  was  the  foremost  master 
of  his  time  and  had  a  strong  influence  on  Mozart.  He  re- 
moved the  harpsichord  from  the  orchestra,  and  introduced 
the  harp,  trombones,  and  clarinets.  He  gave  more  importance 
and  interest  to  the  overture,  and  employed,  with  magic  effect, 
the  artifice  of  momentary  pauses  to  vary  or  emphasize  speech 
in  music.  The  dramatic  and  lyric  effect  of  some  of  his  instru- 
mental solos  has  never  been  surpassed  ;  as,  for  instance,  the 
pathetic  flute  solo  in  D  minor  in  the  scene  in  the  Elysian 
fields  of  the  "  Orfeo."  In  the  words  of  Berlioz,  "  It  is  the 
sublime  lament  of  a  suffering  and  despairing  departed  spirit." 
What  is  more  touching  and  expressive  of  poignant  grief  than 
the  oboe  solo  of  Agamemnon's  air  in  "  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  "  ! 
What  is  more  graphic,  terrible,  and  suggestive  than  the  re- 
peated motive  of  the  contrabasses,  —  the  hoarse  barking  of 
Cerberus  in  the  infernal  scene  of  "  Orfeo" !  No  wonder  that 
Hector  Berlioz,  the  great  modern  orchestral  colorist,  raved 
over  the  poetic  and  dramatic  strokes  of  Gluck' s  genius. 

To  sum  up  our  estimate  of  Gluck  —  he  aimed  at  a  simple, 
grand  style,  and  "  preferred  the  Muses  to  the  Sirens."  In  sim- 
plicity and  dignity  he  approached  the  Greek  ideal.  His  charac- 
ters live,  his  declamation  is  perfect,  his  choruses  are  beautiful 
and  dramatic,  his  orchestration  is  graphic  and  tragic.  "  In  a 
word,  all  his  French  operas  show  him  to  have  been  a  noble 
musician,  a  true  poet,  and  a  deep  thinker."  He  was  the  fore- 
runner of  Mozart,  and  anticipated  Wagner  to  some  extent 
in  his  dramatic  aim. 


CHAPTER  XX 

MOZART 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart,  born  January  27,  1756,  in  Early  evi- 
Salzburg,  was  the  son  of  Leopold  Mozart,  the  noted  violin 
master.  The  story  of  the  child's  precocious  genius  transcends 
by  far  any  other  case  on  record  of  musical  "  wonder  "  children. 
His  musical  nature  was  evinced  almost  in  infancy ;  when  he 
was  but  three  years  old  he  showed  a  fondness  for  striking 
thirds  and  other  harmonious  intervals  at  the  clavier,  and  took 
great  delight  in  listening  to  his  sister  Marianne's  performances. 
His  father  now  gave  him  lessons,  and  he  began  to  compose. 
When  he  was  only  five  he  composed  a  minuet,  which  is  given 
as  his  first  work  in  Kochel's  catalogue.  Two  years  later  he 
began  to  compose  for  instruments  in  combination,  knew 
the  effect  of  sounds  as  represented  by  notes,  and  had  over- 
come the  difficulty  of  composing  unaided  by  an  instrument. 
Before  he  had  received  any  lessons  on  the  violin  he  astonished 
his  father  and  friends  by  playing  the  second  violin  part  in 
some  new  trios  that  they  were  trying  for  the  first  time.  The 
child's  remarkable  intelligence  was  shown  in  other  ways  than 
in  music.  His  disposition  was  characterized  by  an  extreme 
sensibility  and  tenderness.  His  only  sister,  five  years  his 
senior,  was  also  gifted  in  music,  and  at  the  age  of  nine  years 
was  a  remarkable  player  on  the  clavichord.  The  father 
decided  to  bring  his  wonderful  children  before  the  eyes  of  the 
world,  and  so  the  whole  family  started  on  a  journey.  They 
visited  Munich,  Vienna,  Paris,  London,  The  Hague,  and 
Amsterdam,  where  they  created  universal  wonder  and  admira- 
tion, and  were  presented  at  court.  Mozart's  first  serious  work, 
two  sonatas  for  piano  and  violin,  was  published  when  he  was 

253 


254  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

but  seven  years  old.  On  their  return  to  Salzburg  in  1766, 
Wolfgang's  interrupted  studies  were  resumed.  During  the 
next  two  years  he  composed  two  cantatas,  a  Latin  comedy, 
and  his  first  piano  concertos. 

First  operas  In  1768  they  visited  Vienna  and  were  presented  at  court. 
Mozart  now  composed  his  first  opera,  "  La  finta  semplice," 
by  command  of  the  emperor.  At  the  time  he  was  only  ten 
years  old.  The  work  was  in  three  acts,  yet  Mozart  worked 
so  bravely  at  it  that  it  was  soon  finished ;  but  the  jealousy 
and  opposition  of  certain  musicians,  and  the  duplicity  of  the 
manager  of  the  opera,  prevented  it  from  being  produced.  Soon 
after  this  he  composed  a  German  operetta  "  Bastien  und  Bas- 
tienne,"  which  was  produced  in  the  private  theater  of  Dr. 
Mesmer,  a  friend  of  the  Mozarts.  In  1769  father  and  son 
set  out  for  Italy,  and  visited  all  the  principal  towns.  Wher- 
ever they  went  the  boy  excited  great  wonder.  Padre  Martini, 
Farinelli,  Hasse,  Jommelli,  and  many  other  famous  musicians 
marveled  at  his  miraculous  gifts  as  performer  and  composer. 
During  this  first  visit  to  Italy  he  composed  a  number  of  works, 
among  which  was  the  opera  "  Mitridate,"  performed  success- 
fully in  Milan  under  Mozart's  direction.  It  was  repeated 
twenty  times  to  crowded  houses.  In  1771  the  travelers  re- 
turned home  to  Salzburg,  the  tour  in  Italy  having  been  of 
the  highest  service  to  Mozart's  musical  and  worldly  prospects. 
His  genius  was  in  a  state  of  exaltation  in  that  land  of  music 
and  art.  In  1772  they  visited  Milan  again,  where  Wolfgang 
produced  his  new  opera  "  Lucio  Silla,"  which  was  repeated 
again  and  again  before  enthusiastic  audiences.  On  his  return 
to  Salzburg  in  1773,  Mozart  composed  four  symphonies,  three 
divertimenti  for  wind  instruments,  a  mass,  a  string  quintet, 
a  piano  concerto,  and  a  concerto  for  two  violins.  During  the 
summer  he  composed  in  Vienna  a  grand  serenata  and  six 
quartets.  In  1774  Mozart  was  very  busy  with  his  studies  and 
composition.  The  fruits  of  this  period  were  two  masses  and 
other  church  music,  four  symphonies,  two  serenatas,  a  bassoon 


MOZART  255 

concerto,  a  divertimento,  and  piano  variations.  The  father  and 
son  then  visited  Munich,  where  Wolfgang  composed  "  La 
finta  giardiniera."  It  was  brought  out  in  January,  1775,  and 
was  received  with  great  favor.  During  the  next  two  years  in 
Salzburg  he  was  wonderfully  productive  in  almost  every  form 
of  composition  ;  masses,  serenades,  cassations,  divertimenti, 
sonatas,  concertos,  variations,  etc.,  followed  one  another  in 
rapid  succession. 

In  reviewing  the  early  achievements  of  this  precocious  Universal- 
genius  Otto  Jahn  says  :  Sents"" 

As  a  youth  of  twenty-one  years  Mozart  not  only  stood  alone  as  a 
virtuoso  on  the  clavier,  organ,  and  violin,  but  far  excelled  the  first  mas- 
ters of  his  time  as  a  composer.  From  his  earliest  childhood  onward  we 
find  no  contradiction  between  ideas  and  execution,  the  form  and  con- 
tents of  his  works.  We  see  how  he  went  on  step  by  step  and  mastered 
every  form  naturally  and  completely.  All  the  elements  of  a  musical 
nature  were  united  harmoniously  in  Mozart.  We  witness  in  him  the 
organic  development  of  a  rare  artistic  nature,  which  cannot  be  arrested 
by  any  obstacles,  but  rather  makes  everything  bend  to  it.  It  is  the 
greatest  success  which  a  youthful  artist  can  have  that  at  the  very 
threshold  of  manhood  he  should  thus  gain  complete  control  of  all  the 
materials  and  technics  of  his  calling. 

All  that  schooling  and  discipline  could  furnish,  Mozart  had 

acquired,  and  now  he  was  ready  to  go  out  into  the  world, 

fully  armed  and  equipped  to  fight  his  way  against  all  opposi- 

tion.   He   could   not,  in   self-respect,  remain  any  longer  at 

Salzburg,  for  the  manner  in  which  he  was  treated  by  the 

Archbishop  Hieronymus,  in  whose  nominal  employ  he  stood, 

was  outrageous,  and  has  given  this  unworthy  man  an  undesir- 

able notoriety  in  musical  history  ;  otherwise  his  name  would 

have  been  entirely  forgotten  long  ago.     In    1777    Leopold   Attempts 

Mozart  resolved  to  send  his  son  away  to  seek  his  fortune. 


Wolfgang  and  his  mother  accordingly  left  home,  and  directed   Mannheim 

&  J    ,.  ,         ,     .  and  Paris 

their  steps  first  to  Munich  and  then  to  Mannheim,  where  they 
remained  a  number  of  months.  Mannheim  possessed  a  good 
opera  and  one  of  the  foremost  orchestras  in  Europe.  It  was 


256  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

here  that  young  Mozart  learned  the  value  of  the  clarinet  as  an 
orchestral  instrument.  He  found  admiring  friends  among  the 
distinguished  musicians  and  poets  of  Mannheim,  and  fell  in 
love  with  the  singer  Aloysia  Weber ;  but  his  romance  was 
nipped  in  the  bud  by  his  father,  who  wrote  to  him,  "  Off  with 
you  to  Paris,  and  that  immediately."  Leaving  Mannheim  in 
March,  1778,  he  arrived  in  Paris  on  the  twenty-third.  But 
his  father's  anticipations  of  success  were  not  fulfilled.  Mozart 
found  little  encouragement  in  Paris.  He  failed  to  produce  any 
opera  on  the  stage,  and  the  only  important  work  composed 
and  performed  during  his  stay  was  the  symphony  in  three 
movements,  called  the  "  French,  or  Paris,  Symphony."  His 
artistic  hopes  were  crushed  by  the  illness  and  death  of  his 
mother,  and  overcome  with  grief  he  hastened  to  leave  Paris 
in  September,  1778,  and  returned  to  Salzburg,  where  he  was 
consoled  by  the  warm  welcome  of  his  father  and  old  friends. 
In  all  the  situations  and  experiences  of  life  Mozart  was  an 
indefatigable  worker ;  from  his  childhood  to  the  day  of  his 
death  he  exercised  his  creative  faculty  to  the  utmost.  "  In 
mourning  for  his  mother,  disappointed  in  his  first  love,  and 
with  all  his  hopes  falsified,"  he  settled  down  for  a  year  in 
Salzburg  (1779—1780),  and  devoted  himself  to  composition, 
producing  three  masses,  two  vespers,  a  vocal  trio,  songs  and 
canons,  two  symphonies,  two  serenades,  a  divertimento,  four 
sonatas  for  piano  and  violin,  sonatas  for  four  hands,  variations 
for  piano,  a  piano  concerto,  etc. 

"Idomeneo"  His  dislike  for  Salzburg,  however,  determined  him  to  turn 
*"s  steps  elsewhere.  Through  the  influence  of  his  friends  in 
Munich  he  was  invited  to  compose  a  grand  opera  for  the 
carnival  season.  The  subject  was  "  Idomeneo,  re  di  Creta." 
He  lost  no  time  in  completing  the  score,  and  went  to  Munich 
to  conduct  the  rehearsals.  The  initial  performance  took  place 
in  January,  1781,  and  won  a  triumph.  Though  "  Idomeneo" 
has  never  been  as  popular  as  "  Figaro  "  and  "  Don  Giovanni," 
it  is  Mozart's  first  important  dramatic  work.  His  previous 


MOZART  257 

operas  were  composed  in  the  conventional  Italian  style. 
They  rank  among  the  best  of  that  period,  but  were  doomed 
to  be  forgotten.  It  was  not  so  with  his  "  Idomeneo,"  which 
marks  the  turning  point  in  his  career  as  a  dramatist ;  he  no 
longer  follows  the  Italians  blindly,  but  takes  the  serious  and 
noble  Gluck  as  his  model.  In  "  Idomeneo  "  the  chorus  ele- 
ment is  prominent,  the  declamation  dramatic,  and  the  orches- 
tration more  varied  and  effective  than  ever  before. 

Mozart  now  took  up  his  abode  in  Vienna,  where  he  was  Establish- 
destined  to  accomplish  his  great  life  work.  From  this  time  yfJima*  and 
onward  he  appears  as  a  mature  master ;  his  individuality  is  marriage 
stamped  on  all  his  numerous  and  beautiful  works.  If  any 
music  can  be  called  divine,  it  is  Mozart's.  In  1781  he  com- 
posed "  Die  Entftihrung  aus  dem  Serail,"  by  command  of  the 
emperor  Joseph  II.  It  was  brought  out  with  brilliant  success 
in  the  following  year.  A  month  later  Mozart  married  Con- 
stanze  Weber,  the  younger  sister  of  his  first  love.  The  felicity 
of  their  married  life  was  marred  by  the  want  of  resources  ;  they 
began  housekeeping  with  little  or  nothing.  Mozart,  though 
already  famous,  had  many  trials  to  contend  with ;  his  talent 
did  not  meet  with  substantial  reward.  He  had  no  prospect 
of  a  fixed  appointment  and  was  obliged  to  give  lessons  and 
concerts.  It  was  a  disgrace  that  the  emperor,  who  was  so  loud 
in  his  praise  of  Mozart's  music,  did  not  bestow  on  him  a  good 
position.  He  earned  more  by  his  subscription  concerts  than 
by  his  lessons  or  his  compositions.  The  programmes  of  his 
concerts  usually  consisted  of  his  own  works,  —  a  symphony, 
two  piano  concertos,  etc.,  and  an  improvisation  ;  he  composed 
a  new  piano  concerto  for  each  concert.  Mozart  was  the 
creator  of  the  modern  piano  concerto ;  his  piano  playing  is 
described  as  wonderful  in  the  singing  quality  of  his  touch, 
and  in  the  elegance  of  his  running  passages  and  ornaments. 
Clementi  declared  that  he  had  never  heard  anybody  play  with 
so  much  mind  and  charm  as  Mozart.  Haydn  said,  with  tears 
in  his  eyes,  that  as  long  as  he  lived  he  should  never  forget 


258  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Mozart's  playing;  it  went  to  the  heart.  It  was  said  that 
those  who  never  heard  him  improvise  could  have  only  the 
faintest  idea  of  his  inspiration. 

Mozart's  life  in  Vienna  was  one  of  ceaseless  activity  ;  work 
followed  work  with  astonishing  facility.  He  composed  his 
three  immortal  symphonies  in  E!?,  G  minor,  and  C  major 
within  six  weeks  (1788).  The  following  works  were  the  fruits 
of  this  last  period  :  Cosi  fan  tutte  (1790),  Figaro  (1786),  Don 
Giovanni  (1787),  La  clemenza  di  Tito,  and  Die  Zauberflb'te 
(1791);  six  string  quartets  (dedicated  to  Haydn);  a  string 
quintet  in  G  minor;  his  best  piano  concertos  in  D  and  C 
minor,  C  major,  etc.  ;  piano  fantasia  and  sonata  in  C  minor, 
and  his  unfinished  Requiem.  These  masterpieces  will  endure 
as  long  as  musical  art  itself. 

Mozart's  worldly  affairs  were  far  from  satisfactory  ;  even 
the  wonderful  triumph  of  his  "  Don  Giovanni  "  did  not  relieve 
him  of  his  pecuniary  difficulties,  and  he  was  obliged  to  borrow 
money  for  his  household  expenses.  He  applied  to  his  friend 
Puchberg  for  immediate  assistance,  but  up  to  the  last  he 
suffered  from  want.  Mozart  was  naturally  of  a  sunny  dispo- 
sition, but  during  his  last  days  he  was  weighed  down  with 
deep  melancholy.  The  story  of  his  "  Requiem  "  might  be  cited 
in  this  connection.  He  died,  probably  from  brain  fever, 
December  5,  1791,  at  the  age  of  thirty-five  years. 

Character          As  a  man,  Mozart  was  distinguished  for  his  nai've  sim- 
ozart  ,  geniality,  honorable  openness,  and  freedom  from  the 


least  taint  of  falseness  or  intrigue.  His  extremely  affection- 
ate nature  and  sensibility  characterized  him  from  early  child- 
hood. If  not  one  of  the  grandest  personalities  in  musical 
history,  he  was  one  of  the  most  lovable  and  amiable.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  charitable  and  forgiving  of  men  ;  to  the 
poorer  brethren  of  his  profession  he  was  liberal  to  excess  of 
his  time  and  labor.  Many  of  his  finest  concertos  and  sonatas 
were  written  to  oblige  his  friends,  or  to  help  them  in  distress. 
His  own  pecuniary  embarrassments  were  not  due  to  reckless 


MOZART  259 

extravagance,  as  many  have  supposed,  but  to  his  generosity 
and  want  of  self-interest  in  making  professional  engagements. 
A  great  artist  is  rarely  a  good  business  man.  His  friendly 
generosity  was  often  cruelly  abused  by  seeming  friends.  It  is 
no  exaggeration  to  say  that  Mozart  was  the  victim  of  unprinci- 
pled music  sellers  and  managers  of  theaters,  who  gained  pos- 
session of  his  manuscripts  in  an  underhanded  manner  to 
reap  pecuniary  advantage  from  them.  "  Die  Zauberflote " 
brought  him  no  remuneration,  owing  to  the  perfidious  conduct 
of  Schickaneder,  the  opera  manager,  who  well  knew  the  des- 
perate circumstances  of  the  man  he  wras  cruelly  defrauding. 
But  Mozart,  who  seemed  incapable  of  resenting  an  injury, 
when  made  fully  aware  of  his  treachery,  simply  exclaimed, 
"  The  wretch  !  "  and  dismissed  the  matter  from  his  mind.  His 
resentment  of  very  grave  injuries  extended  no  further  than 
the  exclamation,  "  The  wretch !  "  He  was  always  ready  to 
return  good  for  evil.  Mozart's  only  serious  fault  seemed  to 
be  a  love  of  pleasure  and  gay  company ;  he  had  a  passion  for 
dances  and  masquerades,  and  would  not  willingly  forego  an 
opportunity  of  attending  them ;  late  hours  combined  with 
overwork  must  have  had  a  bad  effect  on  his  health.  But  this 
gay  life  never  became  a  vice,  as  is  proved  by  his  preserv- 
ing to  the  last  his  earnest  and  unfailing  attachment  to  his 
home.  His  wife  ever  possessed  his  full  love  and  confidence ; 
to  her  he  confided  everything  ;  he  never  engaged  in  any 
important  undertaking  without  consulting  her.  This  love  of 
company  was,  in  fact,  only  a  virtue  carried  to  excess.  He 
loved  to  have  his  friends  about  him  when  he  worked,  and 
many  of  his  finest  airs  and  themes  were  composed  when  he  His  method 
was  playing  at  billiards,  a  game  of  which  he  was  very  fond,  °  compos 
or  in  a  traveling  carriage,  when  on  a  journey.  Mozart's  man- 
ner of  composing  well  shows  his  wonderful  endowment.  In 
early  boyhood  he  formed  the  habit  of  mental  composition, 
and  he  was  able  to  finish  the  most  elaborate  piece,  even  an 
orchestral  score,  in  his  mind,  before  writing  out  a  note  of 


260 


THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Universal- 
ity of  his 
genius 


it.  On  one  occasion  he  deferred  the  composition  of  a  sonata 
for  piano  and  violin  until  the  day  before  the  concert.  As  he 
could  find  no  opportunity  to  put  his  own  part  on  paper,  he 
executed  it  without  notes  or  rehearsal  with  the  violinist,  to 
the  delight  of  the  audience.  His  power  to  remember  what 
he  had  conceived  was  as  astonishing  as  his  ability  to  work 
out  the  score  without  any  instrument.  On  the  evening  before 
the  presentation  of  "  Don  Giovanni "  the  overture  was  want- 
ing. Mozart  wrote  out  the  score  before  the  next  morning. 
Unless  he  had  conceived  and  memorized  the  parts  of  the 
score  beforehand,  such  a  feat  as  this  would  not  have  been 
possible.  Mozart  is  rightly  considered  as  the  universal  mas- 
ter. This  unparalleled  universality  is  displayed  not  only  in 
his  complete  mastery  of  every  kind  of  musical  composition 
from  a  popular  air  to  a  grand  symphony,  from  a  simple  dance 
to  a  solemn  requiem,  but  in  the  rare  adaptation  of  different 
national  peculiarities  of  style  to  his  own  individuality.  It 
was  his  mission  to  unite  and  beautify  the  national  elements 
of  music,  which  hitherto  had  remained  distinct.  European 
music  attained  its  concentration  for  the  first  time  in  history 
in  his  works  ;  no  other  master  was  endowed  so  peculiarly  with 
the  power  of  appropriating,  so  to  speak,  what  other  great 
musicians  had  conceived,  without  slavish  imitation  of  them. 
It  was  the  intense  appreciation  of  a  kindred  spirit.  He  was 
always  a  willing  learner ;  but  all  that  he  learned  from  others 
did  not  tend  in  the  least  to  efface  the  bright  impression  of 
his  own  individuality.  As  a  boy  he  composed  operas  in  the 
conventional  Italian  style,  and  church  music  in  the  style  of 
German  contemporary  musicians  like  Michael  and  Joseph 
Haydn,  Eberlin,  and  others.  The  strong  impression  which 
Gluck's  operas  made  on  Mozart  is  shown  in  his  "  Idomeneo," 
which  was  produced  after  his  second  visit  to  Paris.  On  his 
memorable  visit  to  Leipzig  and  Berlin  in  1789,  Mozart  learned 
to  know  Bach's  eight-part  motets  and  some  of  his  organ  works. 
"  Here  is  something  from  which  one  may  still  learn,"  he 


MOZART  261 

exclaimed.  The  influence  of  Bach's  wonderful  polyphony  is 
shown  in  Mozart's  last  string  quartets,  the  grand  fugue-finale 
of  his  C  major  symphony,  the  overture  to  "  Die  Zauberflote," 
the  four-hand  fantasia  in  F  minor.  Other  examples  might  be 
cited  to  show  that  Mozart  never  ceased  to  learn  from  others 
and  still  show  his  own  originality  everywhere. 

As  an  instrumental  composer,  Mozart  holds  the  interme-  Mozart  as 
diate  place  between  Haydn  and  Beethoven.  He  had  a  potent 
influence  on  both  masters.  Mozart  owed  the  general  form  poser 
and  style  of  the  symphony  and  quartet  to  Haydn,  but  later  he 
had  the  great  advantage  of  hearing  the  best  orchestras  in 
Europe  —  at  Mannheim,  Munich,  and  Paris  —  while  Haydn 
was  entirely  restricted  to  his  own  small  band.  Mozart  thus 
learned  how  to  write  for  the  wind  instruments  in  a  much  freer 
and  more  effective  manner  than  Haydn.  He  did  not  enlarge 
the  general  form  of  the  symphony  and  quartet,  —  this  was  the 
mission  of  Beethoven,  —  but  he  rounded  and  beautified  the 
details  ;  his  themes  are  poetic,  beautiful,  and  emotional.  There 
is  a  deeper  pathos  and  sensuous  charm  in  the  best  works  of 
Mozart  than  in  those  of  any  of  his  predecessors.  They  have 
the  divine  harmony  and  perfection  of  form  of  the  Madonnas 
of  Raphael  or  the  poems  of  Milton.  Ambros,  the  musical  his- 
torian, says  of  Mozart's  last  three  symphonies,  "  Considered 
as  pure  music,  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  ask  whether  the 
world  possesses  anything  more  perfect."  The  "  Symphony  in 
G  Minor"  is  the  very  epitome  and  essence  of  his  divine  genius. 

In  reviewing  Mozart's  numerous  instrumental  works  — 
three  hundred  and  seventy-eight  out  of  six  hundred  and 
twenty-six  —  we  are  struck  with  their  diversity  of  form  : 
sonatas,  fantasias,  variations,  rondos,  etc.,  for  piano;  violin 
and  piano  sonatas ;  piano  trios,  quartets,  and  quintets  ; 
string  duos,  trios,  quartets,  and  quintets ;  divertimentos, 
cassations,  and  serenades  for  wind  and  stringed  instruments ; 
symphonies,  marches,  and  dances  for  orchestra;  concertos 
for  piano,  violin,  and  other  instruments. 


262 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Piano 
concertos 


His  pre- 


Certain  of  these  forms  owe  their  classical  character  to 
Mozart.  His  divertimentos,  cassations,  and  serenades,  com- 
posed in  six  to  eight  movements  for  wind  and  stringed  in- 
struments, were  intended  to  be  played  in  the  open  air. 
They  number  collectively  thirty-three.  In  Mozart's  time  they 
were  great  favorites,  and  are  still  interesting  on  account  of 
the  complete  mastery  displayed  in  the  treatment  of  the  wind 
instruments. 

Among  Mozart's  most  important  works  are  his  piano  con- 
certos. The  solo  instrument  and  the  orchestra  are  combined 
and  balanced  so  as  to  form  an  organic  whole.  In  his  treat- 
ment of  the  piano  he  introduced  no  mere  bravura  passages ; 
his  passages  are  founded  for  the  most  part  on  the  scale  and 
broken  chords.  In  playing  them,  clearness,  taste,  and  the 
power  of  singing  on  the  instrument  are  required.  The  grace, 
sweetness,  and  tenderness  of  these  finished  works  give  them 
an  irresistible  charm.  Their  perfect  workmanship  and  beauty 
of  form  render  them  classical  models,  although  the  concerto 
and  all  forms  of  piano  music  have  been  greatly  developed 
since  Mozart's  time. 

Haydn  was  the  founder  of  the  quartet,  and  in  certain 
respects  has  never  been  surpassed  in  this  form  of  music  ;  yet 
Mozart,  through  his  rare  mastery  of  polyphony  and  lyric 
melody,  revealed  new  beauty  in  his  quartets.  In  the  six  ded- 
icated to  Haydn  he  individualized  and  beautified  each  of 
the  four  voices  to  the  utmost.  When  these  quartets  first  ap- 
peared, however,  they  were  severely  criticised,  and  declared 
to  be  "hideous  stuff."  The  only  one  that  has  anything 
startling  to  modern  ears,  accustomed  to  the  dissonances  of 
"  Tristan,"  is  the  famous  introduction  to  the  "  Quartet  in  C," 
with  its  false  relations  of  harmony.  This  quartet,  in  spite 
of  the  unhappy  critics,  is  now  considered  as  Mozart's  finest. 

While  Mozart  stands  beside  Haydn  and  Beethoven  as  an 
instrumental  composer  he  is  preeminent  in  the  field  of  dra- 
matic music.  He  was  endowed  by  nature  and  favored  by 


MOZART  263 

opportunity  to  bring  this  to  ideal  perfection,  at  least  as  re- 
gards the  musical  element  of  the  opera.  He  first  learned  of 
the  Italians  and  Gluck,  and  then  beat  them  with  their  own 
tools.  "Don  Giovanni"  and  "Figaro"  are  the  greatest  of 
all  Italian  operas.  The  century  and  a  half  of  previous  cultiva- 
tion reaches  its  climax  in  these  masterpieces.  Mozart  fully 
appreciated  the  Italians  ;  his  musical  instinct  led  him  to  them, 
at  first,  as  naturally  as  he  sought  society  and  friends  ;  but 
while  he  adopted  their  melodious  style  and  warmth  of  color- 
ing, giving  singing  its  full  rights  and  place,  he  did  not  rob 
the  opera  of  dramatic  action.  He  made  the  music  express  Union  of 
to  the  utmost  the  force  and  truth  of  the  diction  and  define  expression 
the  full  outlines  of  the  characters  of  the  play,  without  depriv-  and  melody 
ing  it  in  turn  of  sensuousness  and  beauty.  For  the  over- 
ture, recitative,  air,  concerted  pieces,  chorus,  and  orchestral 
accompaniment,  he  employed  a  more  elaborate  development 
of  themes  and  motives,  according  to  the  artistic  require- 
ments of  each  form  as  placed  in  the  drama.  No  one  has 
ever  united  more  perfectly  than  Mozart,  precision  and  energy 
of  dramatic  expression  with  the  richest  and  purest  melody. 
His  characters  are  musical  revelations,  —  they  think,  feel, 
and  act  in  tones.  Music  is  their  natural  organ  and  native 
speech.  Every  one  appears  on  the  stage  before  us,  and  remains 
true  to  his  or  her  individuality  in  all  situations,  in  every  phase 
of  passion,  true  and  consistent  throughout.  This  is  exhibited 
just  as  vividly  in  his  exquisite  trios,  quartets,  and  other  con- 
certed music,  as  in  his  arias.  In  the  famous  sestet  in  "  Don 
Giovanni"  the  several  voices  maintain  their  characteristic 
individuality  during  the  most  complicated  interweaving  of 
the  parts.  Voices  introduced  merely  to  fill  up  the  harmony 
do  not  exist  in  his  ensembles.  For  this  purpose  Mozart  exer- 
cised his  perfect  command  of  technical  vocal  composition  with 
rare  mastery  of  counterpoint.  The  great  symphonist  and 
contrapuntist  joined  hands  with  the  great  dramatist.  Before 
his  time  the  treatment  of  the  orchestra  remained  comparatively 


264  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

insignificant  as  a  means  of  dramatic  expression  and  coloring, 
though  Gluck  pointed  the  way,  especially  in  the  use  of  solo 
wind  instruments.  Dramatic  orchestration  under  Mozart 
became  more  symphonic  and  massive  in  character.  The  solo 
instruments  are  refined  organs  of  feeling,  which  intensify  the 
dramatic  fire  and  give  color  and  sensuous  beauty  to  the  vocal 
parts,  while  they  support  and  relieve  them  from  beginning 
to  end. 

In  his  operas  every  feeling  of  the  heart  finds  utterance ; 
pathos  and  passion,  humor  and  tenderness,  love  and  hate  — 
every  emotion  is  expressed  in  beautiful  tones.  Mozart  never 
oversteps  the  boundary  line  which  separates  beauty  from  ca- 
cophony. A  divine  harmony  and  classic  purity  of  form  dis- 
tinguish his  dramatic  music,  as,  indeed,  all  his  music,  from  the 
little  minuets  which  he  composed  as  a  child  to  his  immortal 
"Requiem,"  which  he  left  unfinished.  He  has  well  been  called 
the  "  Raphael  of  music." 
Otto  Jahn's  Mozart  died  too  early  to  reach  the  highest  aim  of  his  tran- 
''  scendent  genius.  The  texts  of  his  operas  are  for  the  most 
part  trivial  and  frivolous,  yet  the  nobility  and  purity  of  his 
own  nature  rendered  even  the  subject  of  "Don  Juan"  reli- 
gious and  spiritual  music.  "  Of  all  composers  who  have  lived 
since  his  time,"  says  Otto  Jahn,  "  there  are  none  who  have 
not  been  affected  by  his  mind  and  soul,  none  who  have  not 
inherited  something  from  him.  For  like  all  truly  great  creative 
minds  he  belongs  to  two  periods,  whose  union  he  was  destined 
to  effect.  While  he  absorbed  and  transformed  all  that  his 
time  and  surroundings  could  bestow,  he  reproduced  from  his 
own  nature  the  germ  of  a  new  art  life.  All  that  his  senses 
granted  him,  all  that  his  mind  could  grasp,  all  that  moved  his 
heart,  every  experience  of  life  was  transformed  into  music, 
which  lived  and  stirred  within  him.  From  this  inward  life 
the  artist  created  works  of  imperishable  truth  and  beauty. 
And  while  our  gaze  is  uplifted  in  reverence  and  admiration 
to  the  great  musician,  it  may  rest  with  equal  sympathy  and 


MOZART  265 

love  upon  the  pure-hearted  man.  We  can  trace  in  his  career, 
lying  clear  and  open  before  us,  the  dispensation  which  led 
him  to  the  goal  of  his  desires  ;  and,  hard  pressed  as  he  was 
by  life's  needs  and  sorrows,  the  highest  joy  which  is  granted 
to  mortals  —  the  joy  of  successful  attainment  —  was  his  in 
fullest  measure.  '  And  he  was  one  of  us  ! '  his  countrymen 
may  exclaim  with  just  pride ;  for  wherever  the  highest  and 
best  names  of  every  art  and  age  are  called  for,  there  among 
the  first  will  be  the  name  of  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart." 


CHAPTER  XXI 
BEETHOVEN 

Early  Ludwig  van  Beethoven,  the  greatest  of  all  instrumental 

composers,  was  born  at  Bonn,  December  16,  1770.  His 
father  was  a  singer  in  the  electoral  chapel.  Before  Ludwig 
was  four  years  old  he  was  obliged  to  practise  his  daily  task 
of  exercises  at  the  piano,  and  was  often  urged  by  blows.  His 
father  soon  placed  him  under  the  tuition  of  Pfeiffer,  an  opera 
singer,  who  was  a  good  musician.  At  school  he  learned  to 
read,  write,  and  cipher,  and  a  certain  Zambona  taught  him 
some  Latin,  French,  and  Italian.  This  limited  education  was 
a  source  of  mortification  to  Beethoven  throughout  his  life, 
and  no  doubt  strongly  influenced  his  character.  He  learned 
organ  playing  from  van  den  Eeden,  court  organist,  and  sub- 
sequently composition  from  Neefe,  who  predicted  that  his 
pupil  would  be  a  second  Mozart.  At  the  age  of  eleven  Lud- 
wig played  the  preludes  and  fugues  of  "  The  Well-Tempered 
Clavichord"  with  energy  and  fluency,  and  had  composed 
variations,  bagatelles,  and  sonatas  for  the  piano.  His  re- 
markable talent  attracted  the  attention  of  the  elector,  and 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  appointed  assistant  organist  of 
the  court  chapel.  In  1787  he  was  sent  to  Vienna  to  study 
with  Mozart,  probably  at  the  elector's  expense,  but  the  illness 
and  death  of  his  mother  soon  called  him  home.  The  habits 
of  his  father  had  become  so  bad  that  the  duty  of  supporting 
his  younger  brothers  devolved  in  a  measure  on  Ludwig. 

During  the  next  four  years  he  earned  a  small  salary  as 
organist,  viola  player,  and  teacher,  and  felt  keenly  the  hard- 
ships and  sorrows  of  life.  A  happier  episode  was  the  appre- 
ciation and  sympathy  he  received  from  his  devoted  friends 

266 


BEETHOVEN  267 

Count  Waldstein  and  the  von  Breuning  family.  The  widow 
von  Breuning  was  cultivated  and  kind-hearted,  and  had  a 
good  influence  on  the  young  genius.  Her  daughter  Eleonore 
became  his  pupil,  and  in  turn  acquainted  him  with  Homer, 
Shakespeare,  and  the  German  poets.  He  became  a  great 
reader,  and  gradually  acquired  a  very  good  intellectual  train- 
ing. His  passion  for  Shakespeare  and  Plutarch  was  lifelong. 
Beethoven  exercised  the  same  charm  on  these  noble  friends 
that  he  did  later  on  the  proud  aristocracy  of  Vienna.  This 
youthful  period  of  development  came  to  an  end  in  1792, 
when  Beethoven  was  free  to  accept  the  elector's  kindness, 
and  went  to  Vienna  to  study,  with  the  intention  of  returning 
to  his  native  place  ;  but  he  never  saw  it  again.  He  was  des- 
tined to  remain  in  Vienna  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  except  for 
an  occasional  absence  on  a  journey.  The  list  of  Beethoven's 
compositions  up  to  this  time  consists  of  the  trio  for  strings, 
op.  3,  two  easy  sonatas,  serenade,  op.  8,  some  sets  of  varia- 
tions, songs,  and  other  pieces,  —  very  little  compared  with 
what  Mozart,  Schubert,  and  Mendelssohn  accomplished  in 
their  youth. 

At  Vienna  Beethoven  first  attracted  attention  by  his  piano-  Life  at 
forte  playing,  and  was  soon  recognized  as  a  pianist  of  the 
first  rank,  especially  on  account  of  his  wonderful  improvisa- 
tions, in  which  he  had  no  rival.  He  pursued  his  studies  in 
composition  with  Haydn  and  Albrechtsberger,  but  was  not 
satisfied  with  their  instruction,  for  the  former  was  not  suffi- 
ciently systematic,  and  the  latter  sought  to  bind  his  genius 
to  pedantic  rules.  Beethoven  considered  his  first  five  years 
at  Vienna  as  the  happiest  of  his  life  ;  he  had  kind  and  devoted 
friends  among  the  best  society,  and  was  a  favorite  with  people 
of  the  highest  rank.  The  Archduke  Rudolph,  Prince  Lobko- 
witz,  Prince  Lichnowsky,  and  other  noblemen  were  his  lifelong 
friends,  who  tolerated  his  eccentricities  and  defects  through 
everything.  This  shows  what  a  fascination  there  was  in  the 
man  as  well  as  in  his  music.  During  his  first  years  he  often 


268  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

played  at  the  houses  of  his  noble  friends  and  patrons,  but  as 
time  went  on,  he  became  more  and  more  absorbed  in  com- 
position, and  ultimately  withdrew  from  society  and  the  public, 
except  on  rare  occasions  when  concerts  of  his  new  works 
were  given  for  the  first  time. 

It  is  not  clearly  ascertained  how  many  of  his  earlier  works 
were  written  in  Bonn  and  during  the  first  years  in  Vienna. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  before  the  end  of  the  century  he 
had  composed  more  than  twenty  piano  sonatas,  three  sonatas 
for  piano  and  violin,  three  sonatas  for  piano  and  violoncello, 
three  piano  trios,  the  quartet  for  piano  and  stringed  instru- 
ments, the  quintet  for  piano  and  wind  instruments,  the  piano 
concertos  in  C  and  Bb,  five  trios,  six  quartets,  the  string 
quintet  in  C,  the  septet,  his  First  and  Second  symphonies,  the 
ballet  music  to  "  Prometheus,"  and  a  number  of  songs  and 
Period  of  variations.  During  this  exceedingly  productive  period  deaf- 
ency°n  ness  ^ac^  already  begun  to  afflict  him.  In  1802  he  had  a 
dangerous  illness  which  brought  him  almost  to  the  grave.  It 
was  during  this  crisis  of  his  life  that  he  wrote  his  will,  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  to  his  brothers,  in  which  he  paints  a  vivid 
and  touching  picture  of  his  trials  and  suffering.  "  Born  with 
an  ardent,  lively  temperament,"  he  writes,  "  fond  of  social 
pleasures,  I  was  early  compelled  to  withdraw  myself,  and  lead 
a  life  of  isolation  from  all  men.  When  I  at  times  have  deter- 
mined to  rise  superior  to  all  this,  oh  !  cruelly  have  I  been 
again  cast  down  by  proofs  of  my  defective  hearing,  and  yet 
it  has  been  utterly  impossible  for  me  to  say  to  people,  '  Speak 
louder,  shout,  for  I  am  deaf  ! '  "  On  the  recovery  of  his  health 
he  became  more  resigned,  and  devoted  himself  with  redoubled 
zeal  to  composition.  The  powerful  will  and  character  of  the 
man  could  not  succumb  to  despair ;  he  proudly  and  patiently 
endured  his  fast-increasing  deafness,  the  coldness  and  jealousy 
of  his  brothers,  the  sneers  and  cavilings  of  unfriendly  rivals, 
and  never  in  the  course  of  his  life  sought  to  defend  himself 
against  attacks  on  his  professional  abilities.  Although  he  had 


BEETHOVEN  269 

warm  friends  among  the  nobility,  he  would  not  bow  down  to 
rank  and  wealth  ;  he  looked  on  it  as  a  degradation  of  his 
genius.    The  prince  held  no  higher  place  in  his  estimation  Political 
than  the  private  citizen.     He  was  a  stanch  republican  in  his  l  eas 
political  ideas,  and  did  not  hesitate  at  any  time  to  avow  his 
principles  ;   and  it  required  no  little  courage  to  do  this  in 
Vienna.    His  love  for  the  writings  of  Plutarch  and  Plato  may 
account  for  his   political  belief.     "  Plato's   '  Republic  '  was 
transfused  into  his  flesh  and  blood,"  says  Schindler. 

Beethoven  not  only  had  a  great  heart  but  a  powerful  mind. 
He  did  not  limit  himself  to  music,  but  reasoned  and  reflected 
on  the  great  events  of  his  time.  He  was  an  insatiable  reader, 
especially  of  history,  and  the  all-absorbing  interest  he  felt  in 
the  great  events  which  were  then  taking  place,  his  sympathy 
for  struggling  humanity,  mark  him  distinctively  as  a  repre- 
sentative man  as  well  as  musician.  He  welcomed  Napoleon 
as  the  liberator  of  nations,  and  fondly  believed  at  first  that 
he  had  no  other  ambition  than  to  found  a  free  republic  and 
inaugurate  the  happiness  of  the  world.  This  enthusiasm 
prompted  Beethoven  to  compose  the  grand  "  Heroic  Sym- 
phony" in  honor  of  the  First  Consul,  a  work  which  well  rep- 
resents the  new  form  and  spirit  of  modern  music.  When  the 
composer  heard  that  Napoleon  had  been  proclaimed  emperor, 
he  threw  the  score  of  his  symphony  on  the  floor  with  exe- 
crations. Years  afterwards,  when  the  "  man  of  destiny  "  had 
come  to  his  tragic  end  at  St.  Helena,  Beethoven  sarcasti- 
cally remarked  that  he  had  composed  appropriate  music  to 
this  event,  alluding  to  the  "  Funeral  March,"  which  had  been 
introduced  into  the  symphony  before  its  publication. 

The  first  fifteen  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  1800-1815 
most  fruitful  period  in  Beethoven's  life.  The  mature  and 
original  works  which  he  produced  during  this  time  extended 
from  op.  30  to  op.  117,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  numbers. 
This  list  embraces  many  sonatas,  concertos,  trios,  quartets, 
and  other  chamber  music,  the  Third,  Fourth,  Fifth,  Sixth, 


2/O 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Lawsuit 
with  his 
brother's 
widow 


Seventh,  and  Eighth  symphonies,  the  oratorio  of  "  The  Mount 
of  Olives,"  the  "  Mass  in  C,"  the  opera  "  Fidelio,"  the  music  to 
"  Egmont,"  the  overtures  to  "  Coriolanus,"  "  King  Stephen," 
and  "  Ruins  of  Athens,"  the  fantasia  for  piano,  orchestra,  and 
chorus,  songs,  and  other  vocal  pieces.  After  this  period  the 
remaining  works  of  Beethoven  appeared  in  less  rapid  succes- 
sion. He  became  engaged  in  a  lawsuit  that  robbed  him  of 
his  peace  of  mind.  His  brother  Karl,  who  had  been  unfortu- 
nate in  marriage,  died  in  1815  and  left  his  son  to  the  care 
and  protection  of  the  composer,  but  the  widow,  an  unprin- 
cipled woman,  would  not  give  up  her  son,  and  Beethoven  was 
forced  to  bring  the  case  before  the  courts.  It  was  very 
mortifying  to  Beethoven's  proud,  upright  nature  to  have  to 
prove  the  bad  character  of  his  sister-in-law,  but  this  was 
imperative,  as  the  will  of  the  father  was  not  sufficient  ground 
by  law  for  removing  the  child  from  the  mother.  It  was  not 
till  several  years  had  elapsed  and  the  case  had  been  carried 
from  court  to  court  (because  Beethoven  was  not  a  von),  and 
a  new  action  brought,  that  it  was  decided  in  his  favor.  This 
nephew,  on  whom  Beethoven  lavished  all  his  affection,  after- 
wards proved  to  be  a  worthless  fellow.  For  three  years  Bee- 
thoven did  not  compose  any  important  works  ;  yet  during  the 
few  remaining  years  of  his  life  he  produced  some  of  his  grandest 
masterpieces,  —  the  "  Mass  in  D,"  the  "  Ninth  Symphony,"  his 
last  overtures,  pianoforte  sonatas,  and  quartets.  These  colos- 
sal works  may  be  said  to  have  been  wrung  from  the  very 
agony  of  his  mental  and  bodily  sufferings.  He  was  neglected 
by  the  public,  who  were  bowed  down  in  Rossini  worship ;  he 
was  estranged  from  his  friends ;  he  was  frequently  ill,  and 
totally  deaf ;  he  was  cursed  with  bad  relations ;  and  he  had 
the  care  of  his  nephew,  who  capped  the  climax  of  ugliness 
by  shooting  himself  in  the  head,  and  who  was  imprisoned  in 
consequence  of  his  attempt  at  suicide.  Yet  Beethoven's  lofty 
soul  rose  superior  to  the  tragedy  of  life,  and  sang  the  glorious 
strains  of  joy  and  "  love  embracing  the  millions." 


BEETHOVEN  271 

During  his  last  three  years  he  composed  incessantly,  yet  Last  years 
he  thought  that  all  he  had  accomplished  was  but  a  mere  pre- 
lude to  what  he  was  yet  to  do.  "  I  feel,"  he  said,  "  as  if  I  had 
written  scarcely  more  than  a  few  notes.  I  hope  to  bring  a 
few  great  works  into  the  world,  and  then,  like  an  old  child,  to 
end  my  earthly  career  somewhere  among  good  people."  But 
his  wish  was  not  fulfilled.  His  C  ft  minor  and  F  major  quartets 
were  his  last  works  (dated  1826).  On  his  return  from  the 
country  to  Vienna  in  December  he  caught  a  violent  cold  in 
his  stomach  ;  this  was  the  beginning  of  the  end.  After  a  pain- 
ful illness  he  died,  on  the  evening  of  March  26,  1827,  in  the 
midst  of  a  sudden  storm  of  rain,  hail,  and  lightning.  It  would 
seem  as  though  Nature,  whom  he  had  loved  so  much,  sym- 
pathized with  the  sorrow  of  the  moment. 

"  Beethoven  was  below  the  middle  height,  broad  across  the  Appearance 
shoulders,  and  very  firmly  built.  His  head  was  large,  the  fore-  *cter 
head  high  and  broad,  with  abundant  hair,  in  earlier  years  black, 
in  his  last  years  quite  white.  His  face  was  pockmarked  and 
his  complexion  so  dark  that  he  looked  very  much  like  a  Moor. 
Though  his  face  was  ugly  it  was  wonderfully  expressive. 
When  lost  in  thought  his  look  was  gloomy  and  stern,  but  when 
he  recognized  a  friend  his  smile  was  peculiarly  genial.  His 
eyes  were  the  most  attractive  feature  of  his  face,  and  the 
earnestness  and  sincerity  of  his  character  beamed  forth  from 
his  glance.  His  manners  were  abrupt  and  often  rough,  and 
his  deafness  made  him  suspicious."  His  troubles  with  his 
family  embittered  him  and  he  shunned  society,  yet  beneath 
the  outer  crust  of  pride  and  obstinacy  and  bearishness  there 
beat  a  warm,  generous,  and  sympathetic  heart.  Beethoven 
was  immensely  fond  of  a  joke,  and  some  of  his  humor  was 
hard  to  tolerate.  His  brother  John,  who  was  a  rich  proprietor, 
called  on  the  composer  and  left  his  card,  "  Johann  van  Bee- 
thoven, Landed  Proprietor."  Beethoven  immediately  returned 
it  after  writing  on  the  back,  "  L.  van  Beethoven,  Brain  Pro- 
prietor." His  simplicity  and  independence  of  character  gave 


272  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

an  irresistible  force  to  everything  he  said  or  did,  but  made  it 
very  hard  for  his  friends  to  bear.  He  was  always  in  difficul- 
ties about  his  lodgings  and  domestics.  He  said  of  a  servant 
who  told  a  falsehood  that  she  was  not  pure  at  heart,  and  there- 
fore could  not  make  good  soup.  He  hired  apartments  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  city,  and  moved  from  one  place  to  another  as 
the  whim  seized  him.  He  was  a  great  walker,  and  spent  much 
of  his  time  in  the  open  air ;  many  of  his  finest  ideas  came  to 
him  while  walking  in  the  suburbs  of  Vienna  or  the  country 
with  his  notebook  in  hand.  No  man  loved  the  country  more; 
his  summers  were  spent  there,  and  he  looked  forward  to  his 
escape  from  the  city  with  all  the  delight  of  a  child.  He  said, 
"  Woods,  trees,  and  rocks  give  the  response  which  man 
requires.  Every  tree  seems  to  say,  Holy,  Holy."  As  he  sat 
by  some  tree,  inspiration  would  come  to  him,  and  among  such 
surroundings  his  "  Fidelio,"  "Heroic  Symphony,"  "Mount  of 
Olives,"  and  in  fact  the  majority  of  his  great  works  were 
sketched  in  his  notebooks  and  afterwards  erased  and  rewritten 
again  and  again  until  they  finally  reached  perfection.  His 
many  notebooks,  where  all  the  ideas  were  written  down  as 
they  occurred  to  him,  afford  a  precious  insight  into  Bee- 
thoven's method  of  composing.  There  is  hardly  a  bar  of  his 
music  which  was  not  rewritten  again  and  again :  a  work 
grew  like  a  plant  or  tree,  a  gradual  and  organic  process.  The 
theme  of  the  "  Hymn  of  Joy  "  in  the  "  Ninth  Symphony  "  is 
found  in  one  of  his  first  sketchbooks,  when  he  was  a  young 
man ;  it  was  years  before  it  was  developed  and  incorporated 
into  his  greatest  work.  Whole  years  of  reflection  were  com- 
prised in  his  works,  but  when  a  composition  was  once  done 
he  would  never  alter  a  note. 

Deafness  Who  can  conceive  what  a  source  of  unhappiness  and  suffer- 

ing was  the  deafness  which  afflicted  Beethoven  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  ?  Think  of  a  blind  painter,  and  one 
may  imagine  the  deaf  composer,  unable  to  hear  a  note  of  his 
divine  music.  It  seems  hard  to  believe  that  the  creator  of 


BEETHOVEN  273 

the  "  Seventh  Symphony  "  and  the  "  Choral  Symphony  "  was 
doomed  to  receive  no  delight  or  happiness  from  their  actual 
sound.  We  read  in  a  letter  of  Rellstab,  who  visited  Beethoven 
in  his  latter  days,  that  the  composer  struck  a  chord  softly. 
"  Never  will  another  fill  me  with  such  melancholy.  He  had 
C  major  in  the  right  hand,  and  struck  B  in  the  bass,  and 
looking  at  me  steadily  repeated  the  wrong  chord  several 
times  that  I  might  hear  the  sweet  tone  of  the  instrument ; 
yet  the  greatest  musician  on  earth  did  not  perceive  the 
discord." 

Yet  this  fatal  deafness  befriended  him,  as  it  were,  when 
it  closed  the  doors  of  sense  behind.  In  his  ideal  world  he 
unburdened  his  sorrows,  hopes,  joys,  and  aspirations.  They 
became  the  companions  of  his  solitude.  Beethoven  has  vindi- 
cated the  true  spirituality  of  music  ;  the  deaf  musician  has 
proved  that  the  ancient,  poetical  significance  of  music  as  the 
divine  art  is  true.  This  inward  life  accounts  for  the  composer's 
early  inclination  for  instrumental  music.  The  wide  range 
opened  to  his  imagination  and  emotions  by  the  modern  orches- 
tra, with  its  unlimited  resources  of  instrumental  color  and 
technical  means,  enabled  Beethoven  to  speak  in  the  "lan- 
guage of  a  thousand  souls,"  and  move  the  world  with  his 
impassioned  eloquence. 

Beethoven  owed  much  to  Haydn  and  Mozart,  but  he  was  Originality 
not  content  to  be  a  mere  imitator.  He  began  where  they  left 
off.  Through  his  originality  and  daring  he  carried  the  clas- 
sical forms  of  instrumental  music  to  the  culmination  point.  In 
his  first  works,  from  op.  I  to  op.  30,  or  thereabouts,  Bee- 
thoven shows  the  influence  of  his  predecessors  to  some 
extent  ;  and  yet  in  his  very  first  work  —  three  trios  —  strik- 
ing originality  and  independence  are  asserted  on  every  page. 
And  it  was  not  long  before  he  left  all  far  behind  in  his  lofty 
flight  of  genius.  It  was  his  peculiar  and  remarkable  charac- 
ter as  much  as  his  great  musical  gift  that  impelled  him  on 
the  path  of  progress. 


274  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Many  writers  have  divided  the  works  of  Beethoven  into 
three  periods,  but  they  are  not  to  be  so  sharply  denned  ;  in 
general  they  correspond  to  the  life  periods  of  youth,  maturity, 
and  old  age.  In  his  earlier  works  he  followed  the  path  of 
Haydn  and  Mozart  to  some  extent ;  in  his  middle  period  he 
went  his  own  way,  and  appeared  in  all  his  originality  and 
strength ;  in  his  last  period  he  revealed  himself  as  a  prophet 
and  dreamer  of  heavenly  things.  He  soon  outgrew  the  limits 
of  previous  musical  construction.  What  a  contrast  between 
his  "  Heroic  Symphony "  and  all  that  had  been  conceived 
before !  Beethoven  was  destined  to  develop  the  art  of  thematic 
treatment  to  a  point  never  reached  before  nor  surpassed  since. 
The  several  movements  were  laid  out  on  much  broader  foun- 
dations, the  musical  periods  expanded  to  their  utmost  limits. 
The  so-called  middle  part  (Mittelsatz)  of  the  movement  was 
made  more  impressive  and  more  elaborate ;  also  the  coda 
(Schlussgruppe)  was  much  extended,  worked  up,  and  made 
the  very  climax  of  the  whole  movement.  Splendid  examples 
of  this  kind  are  the  opening  movements  of  the  Heroic  and 
Fifth  symphonies. 

In  the  art  of  motive  building  Beethoven  followed  Haydn 
and  Mozart,  but  with  new  results.  We  are  astonished  at  the 
never-ending  variety  which  this  thematic  play  brings  forth. 
The  opening  allegro  of  his  "Fifth  Symphony"  is  often  cited  as 
a  wonderful  example  of  the  development  of  the  great  dramatic 
movement  from  a  single  motive  of  four  notes.  He  intensified 
the  character  of  every  movement.  The  scherzo  owes  its  origin 
to  Beethoven,  who  developed  it  from  the  slower  minuet,  trans- 
forming its  nature,  and  rendering  it  highly  poetical,  imagina- 
tive, and  humorous. 

In  the  adagio,  or  other  slow  movement,  the  master  gives 
utterance  to  his  pathetic,  solemn,  and  religious  feelings. 
Here  he  speaks  the  language  of  his  inmost  soul ;  we  feel 
that  "he  was  a  man  of  sorrows,  and  acquainted  with  grief." 
The  finale  assumed  much  greater  importance  than  formerly. 


BEETHOVEN  275 

Under  Haydn  and  Mozart  it  usually  consisted  of  a  light 
rondo,  which  conducted  the  work  to  a  gay  and  pleasing  con- 
clusion. Mozart,  however,  in  his  "Jupiter"  symphony,  gave 
an  example  of  a  broad,  noble,  and  masterly  finale.  Beetho- 
ven extended  the  finale,  and  made  it  the  climax  of  the 
whole  work.  What  is  there  grander  or  more  inspiring  in  all 
art  than  the  last  movement  of  the  "  Fifth  Symphony  "  ? 

Beethoven's  music,  more  than  any  other  before  his  time,  is 
characterized  by  vivid  contrasts  in  the  themes  and  passages, 
rhythmical  effects,  bold  dissonances  and  modulations,  dynamic 
expression,  varied  and  massive  instrumentation.  This  is  true 
not  only  of  the  several  movements  as  a  whole  but  of  their 
subdivisions.  The  movements  are  held  in  close  relation  by 
contrast  of  emotions,  by  elevated  or  depressed,  passionate  or 
calm,  moods.  If  the  first  movement  is  conceived  in  a  power- 
ful or  fiery  or  tragic  spirit,  the  feelings  after  a  time  are  ren- 
dered all  the  more  susceptible  to  the  calm  mood  of  the  slow 
movement,  which  may  lead  through  sadness  and  longing  to 
the  vivacity  and  jocoseness  of  the  scherzo,  and  this  in  turn  to 
triumphant  joy  in  the  finale.  Each  is  thus  employed  with  its 
special  aesthetic  problem,  and  contributes  its  share  to  the 
total  effect  of  the  work.  This  same  aesthetic  law  of  contrast 
applies  also  to  the  divisions  of  each  movement  with  its  several 
themes. 

Beethoven  broke  down  the  restrictions  that  governed  tran-  Character 
sitions  of  key.  He  made  sudden  progressions  into  remote  c 
keys.  His  bold  modulations  were  unprecedented.  Before  his 
time  the  composers  of  symphonies  and  sonatas  had  generally 
confined  themselves  to  a  narrow  range  of  keys,  especially 
between  the  several  movements.  In  eighty-one  works  of 
Beethoven  in  sonata  form  the  second  movement  occurs  in 
the  dominant  only  three  times  ;  in  the  subdominant  nineteen 
times  ;  in  the  submediant,  or  third  below,  thirty  times.  This 
latter  was  his  favorite  change.  Beethoven  was  the  greatest 
master  of  the  variation.  Witness  the  finale  of  the  "  Heroic 


276  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Symphony,"  the  andante  con  moto  of  the  Fifth,  the  adagio 
of  the  Ninth,  the  slow  movements  of  the  trio  in  Bb,  the 
Appassionata  and  "Kreutzer"  sonatas.  His  variations  are 
not  exhibitions  of  skill  and  learning,  or  of  musical  embroidery, 
but  are  full  of  beauty  and  feeling.  Each  variation  is  a  char- 
acter piece  or  tone  poem. 

The  dramatic  and  intensely  emotional  character  of  his  ideas 
impelled  him  to  use  a  great  number  of  dynamic  nuances.  If 
we  compare  him  with  his  predecessors,  we  are  impressed  with 
the  great  number  of  marks  of  expression.  The  cavatina  of 
his  Bb  quartet  is  sixty-six  measures  long,  and  has  no  less 
than  fifty-eight  marks  of  expression. 

Orchestra-  Beethoven  advanced  the  art  of  orchestration  to  its  essen- 
tially modern  stage.  His  orchestra  is  practically  the  same  as 
Mozart's,  but  the  instruments  are  used  with  greater  freedom 
and  technical  execution.  He  employed  more  massive  combina- 
tions. His  tuttis  are  more  powerful,  his  solo  and  chorus 
effects  more  varied  than  ever  before.  He  works  the  orches- 
tra up  to  grand  climaxes  by  extended  rhythmical  passages 
in  ever-growing  crescendo.  An  intense  dramatic  spirit  and 
tragic  fire  are  characteristic  of  his  symphonies  and  overtures. 
Witness  his  "Fifth  Symphony,"  the  overtures  to  "Leonore, 
No.  3,"  "  Egmont,"  and  "  Coriolanus."  Even  the  orchestral 
preludes  of  Wagner  are  not  so  great  in  tragic  pathos. 

Beethoven  did  not  introduce  unusual  instruments  except 
in  very  few  works.  He  was  too  reserved  in  his  employ- 
ment of  trombones.  None  are  used  in  his  symphonies,  ex- 
cept in  the  finale  of  the  Fifth,  the  "Thunderstorm"  of  the 
"Pastoral,"  and  the  choral  part  of  the  Ninth;  but  he  used 
them  freely  in  the  overture  to  "  Leonore"  and  in  the  opera 
"Fidelio."  On  a  few  occasions  he  employed  the  contra-fagot 
and  the  basset  horn.  He  first  raised  the  kettledrum  to  the 
importance  of  a  solo  instrument.  In  his  Eighth  and  Ninth 
symphonies  they  are  tuned  in  octaves.  Since  his  time  the 
orchestra  has  been  enriched  by  the  addition  of  the  English 


BEETHOVEN  277 

horn,  bass  clarinet,  bass  tuba,  valved  horns  and  trumpets,  harp, 
etc.,  and  a  larger  string  band.  Nowadays  the  full  orchestra 
employs  also  a  larger  chorus  of  wood  and  brass  instruments. 

Music  cannot  express  verbal  ideas,  but  as  a  spiritual  lan- 
guage it  transcends  all  words  in  expressing  intense  moods  of 
feeling.  Beethoven  is  its  greatest  poet.  His  works  are  genu- 
ine tone  poems  that  are  clearly  understood  and  felt  by  every 
musical  listener  who  has  learned  the  language  of  tones,  —  a 
language  which  cannot  be  translated  into  words,  as  has  been 
so  often  attempted  by  Wagner,  Lenz,  Marx,  and  others,  who 
waste  labor  and  thought  in  trying  to  explain  Beethoven's 
poetic  intentions. 

One  striking  feature  of  Beethoven's  works  is  their  differ- 
ence of  style.  He  is  the  least  of  a  mannerist  of  all  the  masters. 
Each  work  has  its  own  peculiar  character ;  each  is  a  type  by 
itself.  He  may  be  compared  with  Shakespeare  in  this  respect, 
as  well  as  in  the  power  of  expressing  so  vividly  and  intensely 
every  phase  of  human  emotion.  The  operas  of  Wagner  may 
also  be  cited  as  being  wholly  unlike  each  other  in  style  and 
treatment.  They,  too,  show  wonderful  progress  in  musical 
growth  and  characteristic  variety.  Only  a  few  of  Beethoven's 
works  have  titles  to  indicate  their  practical  intention,  yet  each 
one  impresses  its  meaning  as  clearly  as  daylight.  The  "  Fifth  The  sym- 
Symphony  "  means  more  to  us  than  the  "Pastoral  Symphony,"  Phomes 
—  his  one  great  piece  of  programme  music.  Even  in  this  he 
aimed  at  the  "  expression  of  emotions  rather  than  at  tone 
painting"  according  to  his  own  words.  His  "Egmont"  and 
"  Coriolanus  "  overtures  and  his  Appassionata  and  Farewell 
sonatas  have  only  general  titles  to  characterize  them,  but  they 
do  not  need  more.  The  First  and  Second  symphonies  suggest 
the  style  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  yet  they  were  considered 
daring  when  they  first  appeared.  The  beautiful  and  tender 
larghetto  and  the  spirited  scherzo  of  the  "  Second  Symphony" 
are  thoroughly  Beethovenish.  But  with  the  Heroic  he  laid 
the  cornerstone  of  the  modern  symphony.  Here  he  revealed 


278  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

himself  in  all  his  power,  originality,  and  character.  The  tradi- 
tional form  of  the  slow  movement  is  replaced  by  the  "  Funeral 
March  "  on  the  death  of  a  hero,  which  is  the  most  impressive 
of  all  dirges.  The  scherzo  is  Shakespearean  in  humor  and 
fascination,  and  the  finale  crowns  the  whole  work.  The  Fourth 
is  on  a  lesser  scale,  but  has  an  Italian  melodiousness  and 
artistic  finish  which  contrast  with  the  heroic  quality  of  the 
Third  and  the  dramatic  fire  and  pathos  and  triumph  of  the 
Fifth.  The  Pastoral  is  full  of  the  joy  of  life  in  the  contem- 
plation of  nature. 

The  The  Seventh  is  full  of  great  contrasts  of  mood, — joy  and 

Symphony"  sorrow  alternate  with  humor  and  exulting  passion.  How 
different  in  character  from  the  Fifth,  though  equally  grand 
and  intense !  It  is  more  truly  romantic  than  the  symphonies 
of  the  so-called  romantic  composers  who  have  followed  in  this 
path.  The  Eighth  is  the  most  concentrated  and  concise  of  all 
his  symphonies.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  joyousness,  though 
mingled  with  strains  of  pathos.  The  Ninth  or  "  Choral  Sym- 
phony" stands  alone  in  the  history  of  music.  The  first  three 
movements  are  instrumental,  and  have  reference  to  the  follow- 
ing Choral  part,  which  is  set  to  Schiller's  "  Ode  to  Joy."  The 
first  movement  typifies  the  tragic  struggle  of  the  soul,  the 
scherzo  suggests  the  grotesque  humor  and  fantastic  phases 
of  life,  the  wonderful  adagio  expresses  holy  aspirations,  and 
pure  sentiments  of  the  heart  laden  with  sorrow.  But  these 
unheard-of  accents  of  the  instruments  are  not  enough.  The 
human  voice  now  takes  up  the  burden  with  the  words,  "  O 
friends,  let  not  these  tones  but  happier  ones  inspire  us  !  " 
Then  follows  the  sublime  hymn,  with  its  theme  of  joy,  love, 
and  brotherhood  for  all  mankind,  or  that  charity  which  is  the 
true  essence  of  Christianity. 

Beethoven  employed  the  sonata  form  in  all  his  important 
instrumental  works ;  but  we  lose  sight  of  the  constructive 
outlines  entirely  in  our  appreciation  of  the  poetical  ideas  and 
moods  of  feeling  which  dominate  his  music.  What  is  true  of 


BEETHOVEN  279 

his  symphonies  applies  with  equal  force  to  his  piano  and 
chamber  compositions.  He  developed  instrumental  technic 
and  expression  to  a  much  higher  point  in  his  piano  sonatas, 
trios,  and  concertos,  and  in  his  chamber  music.  The  most 
famous  of  these  —  the  Moonlight,  Appassionata,  Farewell  son- 
atas, the  great  Bt>  sonata,  op.  106,  the  last  three  sonatas  in 
E  major,  Ab,  and  C,  the  "  Kreutzer  Sonata  "  for  piano  and 
violin,  the  B^  piano  trio,  the  piano  concertos  in  G  and  E^, 
the  violin  concerto  in  D,  the  three  quartets,  op.  59,  the  harp 
quartet,  and  the  last  transcendental  quartets  —  are  the  great- 
est of  their  kind  and  are  immortal. 

As  a  vocal  composer  Beethoven  was  not  preeminent.  He  Vocal  corn- 
treated  the  human  voice  too  much  like  an  orchestral  instru-  pos 
ment.  It  is  remarkable  that  while  he  often  consulted  orches- 
tral musicians  with  regard  to  instrumental  technical  effects, 
he  apparently  did  not  ask  the  advice  of  singers  as  to  vocal 
treatment.  His  disregard  for  the  capabilities  of  the  voices 
was  painfully  exhibited  in  the  "Choral  Symphony"  and  in  the 
"  Mass  in  D."  On  the  other  hand,  in  his  beautiful  song  cycle, 
"  To  the  Absent  Loved  One,"  and  in  his  most  popular  song, 
"Adelaide,"  he  showed  an  appreciation  of  the  principles  that 
govern  vocal  art,  —  the  bel  canto  of  the  Italians  is  combined 
with  German  sentiment  and  feeling.  "  Fidelio  "  also  contains 
much  that  is  vocally  effective,  though  in  this  work,  as  in  the 
"  Choral  Symphony  "  and  "  Mass  in  D,"  the  orchestra  domi- 
nates. "  Fidelio,"  his  only  opera,  holds  an  equal  place  with 
Mozart's  "  Don  Giovanni "  and  "  Zauberflote  "  and  has  one 
great  superiority  over  them  in  its  noble  subject.  The  dramatic 
intensity  of  the  great  dungeon  scene  is  hardly  equaled  by 
Wagner  or  any  other  dramatic  composer.  It  is  heartrending 
and  thrilling,  like  the  last  scene  of  "  King  Lear."  The  dra- 
matic interest  of  "Fidelio"  ends  with  the  dungeon  scene.  The 
last  scene  is  an  anticlimax.  Like  most  of  the  operas  of  that 
time,  "  Fidelio "  has  spoken  dialogue  and  conventional  solos 
and  concerted  numbers.  The  quartet,  "  Mir  ist  so  wunderbar," 


280  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

is  a  great  favorite,  the  prisoners'  chorus  is  very  impressive, 
and  the  duet  of  Leonore  and  Florestan  at  the  end  of  the 
dungeon  scene  expresses  delirious  joy.  Yet  the  orchestra  is 
master  everywhere.  "  There  is  not  an  instrumental  note  that 
has  not  its  passionate,  dramatic  meaning ;  there  is  not  an 
instrument  that  is  not  a  party  to  the  drama.  The  overture, 
No.  3,  is  the  whole  story  of  the  agony  and  the  womanly  devo- 
tion of  Leonore  in  concise  and  tragic  form,  just  as  the  over- 
tures to  '  Egmont '  and  '  Coriolanus  '  are  the  summing  up  of 
the  tragedies  of  Goethe  and  Shakespeare." 

Beetho-  Beethoven  considered  the  "  Mass  in  D  "  as  his  greatest 

uf  E)S"'  *  WOI"k-  In  composing  it  he  did  not  think  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic service.  It  is  not  church  music  so  much  as  the  direct, 
subjective  expression  of  a  religious  heart,  which  cannot  be 
restrained  by  the  barriers  of  mere  form  and  ritual.  The  com- 
poser consecrated  his  whole  heart  and  energy  to  the  creation 
of  this  great  mass.  In  the  manuscript  is  written  over  the 
Kyrie,  "  From  the  heart !  May  it  go  back  to  the  heart !  " 
Beethoven  was  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  faith,  but  he  did 
not  set  much  value  on  church  forms  and  observances ;  yet  he 
was  religious,  as  his  life  and  works  prove.  He  was  too  much 
affected  by  the  liberal  spirit  of  the  age  to  follow  blindly  in 
the  footsteps  of  tradition ;  he  dared  to  think  for  himself.  It 
was  remarkable  that  he  would  never  converse  on  religion  or 
thoroughbass.  He  had  written  with  his  own  pen  two  inscrip- 
tions, which  were  framed  and  placed  on  his  writing  table. 
They  were  said  to  have  been  found  in  an  Egyptian  temple, 
and  were  as  follows :  "I  am  all  that  is,  all  that  was,  and  all 
that  shall  be.  No  mortal  hath  uplifted  my  veil."  "  He  is  One, 
self -existent,  and  to  that  One  all  things  owe  their  existence." 
This  was  an  epitome  of  the  loftiest  and  purest  religion  to 
Beethoven.  His  mass  is  inspired  with  a  new  spirit  of  reli- 
gious consciousness.  It  is  as  profoundly  religious  as  Pales- 
trina's  "  Marcellus  Mass  "  or  Bach's  "  Mass  in  B  Minor,"  and 
much  more  akin  to  our  modern  sentiments,  taste,  and  feeling. 


BEETHOVEN  281 

"  In  his  mass  Beethoven,  wherever  he  is  most  imposing,  is 
intensely  dramatic,  and  when  he  follows  tradition,  he  is  least 
himself.  Notice,  for  instance,  the  change  from  the  passionate 
entreaty  that  is  almost  a  defiance  in  the  Kyrie  to  the  ineffable 
tenderness  in  the  Christe  elei'son,  the  wonderful  Incarnatus 
and  Crucifixus."  In  the  fugal  movements,  on  the  other  hand, 
where  he  follows  the  traditional  formulas,  he  is  less  impress- 
ive. But  what  is  there  in  all  music  more  beautiful  and  celes- 
tial than  the  lyric  Benedictus,  with  the  obligato  violin  solo ! 

"  The  religious  element  in  Beethoven's  music  is  not  con- 
fined to  works  which  have  a  sacred  text.  The  yearning  after 
heavenly  rest,  sublime  hope,  and  thanksgiving"  are  found  in 
his  last  quartets,  and  in  almost  all  his  mature  works.  His 
Choral  Symphony  is  raised  above  the  secular  and  church  styles 
by  the  grand  motive  that  inspired  it.  The  struggle  to  over- 
come the  world,  and  convert  its  temptations,  trials,  and  dis- 
appointments into  the  eternal  blessings  of  joy  and  love,  is 
the  text  of  a  sermon  whose  grandeur  and  eloquence  ought 
to  move  all  mankind. 

Beethoven  is  a  world  poet,  like  Shakespeare.  There  is  Contempo- 
an  element  of  popularity  in  all  his  creations,  yet  his  mature 
works  were  not  understood  by  many  cultivated  musicians  at 
first ;  even  his  earlier  compositions  were  harshly  criticised. 
We  read  with  astonishment  nowadays  the  following  criticism, 
in  the  Allgemeine  musikalische  Zeitung,  of  Beethoven's  three 
sonatas  for  piano  and  violin,  op.  12:  "  It  is  well  known 
that  Herr  van  Beethoven  is  a  finished  pianist,  but  judging 
from  the  compositions  before  us,  it  is  a  question  whether  he 
can  be  considered  as  favorably  as  a  composer.  It  is  not  to 
be  denied  that  he  goes  his  own  way,  but  what  a  bizarre  and 
wretched  way !  Learned,  learned,  and  always  learned,  but 
with  nothing  natural  —  no  melody.  Nothing  but  materials 
without  a  good  method,"  and  so  on  in  this  strain.  In  his 
maturer  years  his  great  symphonies  were  received  by  many 
as  the  product  of  a  man  half  insane.  Even  von  Weber 


282  THE   HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

declared,  when  he  heard  for  the  first  time  Beethoven's 
"Seventh  Symphony,"  that  the  composer  was  ready  for  the 
madhouse.  Spohr  had  a  poor  opinion  of  the  finale  of  the 
"  Fifth  Symphony."  What  a  contrast  to  the  endless  rhapso- 
dies that  were  published  in  a  later  generation  in  the  futile 
attempt  to  explain  his  tone  poems  and  translate  their  mean- 
ing into  words  ! 

His  last  five  quartets  have  been  called  mystical  and  tran- 
scendental. They  are  the  last  utterance  of  a  man  who  was 
nearing  the  end  of  his  life  tragedy.  "  Yet  it  is  not  a  longing 
for  death  that  here  finds  expression,"  says  Nohl,  "but  the 
intense  and  joyful  feeling  of  something  eternal  and  holy  that 
speaks  to  us  in  the  language  of  a  new  dispensation.  The 
nature  of  the  four  combined  instruments  was  the  only  vehicle 
of  this  pure,  ethereal,  and  spiritual  music.  The  melodies  move 
freely  in  a  wide  compass,  the  voices  cross  each  other  freely, 
giving  wonderful  etherealness  and  spirituality  to  the  effect  of 
the  strings  by  their  thinness  and  delicacy  of  tone  when  thus 
separated  by  long  intervals  between  the  several  parts  of  the 
chords."  While  many  consider  these  quartets  his  greatest 
tone  poems,  others  call  them  "charcoal  sketches,"  and  talk 
about  Beethoven's  deafness.  Fetis  held  them  to  be  "  the 
aberrations  of  a  genius  that  goes  out  in  darkness,"  and  others 
"  wrench  the  dictionary  in  the  expression  of  their  delight." 
But  here  "  all  criticism  is  blind  and  impotent." 
Estimate  of  To  sum  up  our  estimate  of  Beethoven :  it  was  his  mis- 
Beethoven  gjon  to  SpirituaiiZe  all  forms  of  music ;  his  great  ideas  have  a 
religious  tone  and  elevation  that  seizes  the  soul  of  the  true 
listener.  His  great  symphonies  and  quartets  are  like  trage- 
dies in  their  deep  import  and  struggle  of  emotions ;  the  dif- 
ferent movements  have  as  close  a  connection  as  the  several 
acts  of  a  tragic  drama.  He  revealed  a  new  and  higher  world, 
and  spoke  a  language  never  heard  before.  The  moral  tone  of 
his  music  will  always  exert  a  powerful  influence  for  good  on 
humanity  wherever  the  wonderful  art  of  music  is  known.  In 


BEETHOVEN  283 

the  Pantheon  of  art  Beethoven  holds  a  foremost  place  beside 
the  greatest  poets  and  artists  of  all  time,  beside  ^schylus 
and  Dante,  Michael  Angelo  and  Shakespeare.  Like  these 
inspired  men  he  has  widened  and  ennobled  the  mind  and  soul 
of  humanity.  "In  his  last  works,"  says  Dannreuther,  "he 
passes  beyond  the  horizon  of  a  mere  singer  and  poet,  and 
touches  upon  the  domain  of  the  seer  and  prophet,  where,  in 
unison  with  all  genuine  mystics  and  ethical  teachers,  he 
delivers  a  message  of  religious  love  and  resignation  and 
release  from  the  world."  "A  trace  of  heroic  freedom  per- 
vades all  his  creations,"  says  Ferdinand  Hiller.  "  The  expres- 
sion '  Im  Freien '  (liberty)  might  serve  as  the  inscription 
of  a  temple  devoted  to  his  genius."  May  the  spirit  of  his 
immortal  works  dwell  in  the  hearts  of  the  lovers  of  freedom 
everywhere,  and  may  men  learn  the  lesson  of  patience,  un- 
ceasing work,  endurance,  and  faith  which  he  exemplified  in 
his  life  and  taught  in  his  works  ! 

In  the  time  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  Vienna  was  Contempo- 
the  capital  of  the  musical  world.  All  classes  of  people  culti- 
vated  music  ;  amateur  orchestras  and  quartet  clubs  abounded, 
and  noblemen  emulated  each  other  in  having  private  opera 
and  orchestral  establishments.  Among  the  many  minor  musi- 
cians who  flourished  then  were  several  who  deserve  mention. 

Ignaz  Joseph  Pleyel  (1757-1831)  was  the  favorite  pupil  of 
Haydn.  He  was  a  talented  composer.  His  symphonies  quar- 
tets, and  quintets  for  a  time  rivaled  Haydn's  in  popularity. 
Even  Mozart,  at  first,  thought  that  Pleyel's  quartets  might 
replace  Haydn's  ;  but  time  proved  them  to  be  only  the  reflec- 
tion of  Haydn's  style  without  his  inspiration,  and  they  soon 
died  a  painless  death. 

Andreas  Romberg  (1767-1821)  was  one  of  a  very  musical 
family.  His  cousin,  Bernhard  Romberg,  was  a  noted  violon- 
cellist and  composer.  Andreas  composed  operas,  symphonies, 
and  chamber  music.  His  cantata,  "  The  Lay  of  the  Bell," 
has  been  popular  in  England  and  America. 


284  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Adalbert  Adalbert  Gyrowetz  (1763-1850),  the  most  brilliant  of  these 

epigones,  was  prolific  in  all  forms  of  music.  He  composed 
thirty  operas  (the  most  noted  of  which  were  his  "  Augenarzt," 
"Agnes  Sorel,"  "  Priifung,"  and  "Helene"),  Singspiele,  bal- 
lets, nineteen  masses,  and  other  vocal  music.  He  wrote  over 
sixty  symphonies,  and  many  quartets,  overtures,  serenades, 
dances,  piano  sonatas,  etc.  In  his  younger  days  he  had  a  bril- 
liant reputation  in  England  and  France.  For  twenty-seven 
years  he  was  conductor  of  the  imperial  opera  in  Vienna.  Al- 
though a  thoroughly  trained  master,  yet  he  lacked  the  one 
thing  needful  for  a  composer,  —  individuality  ;  he  was  an  un- 
conscious imitator  of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  He  witnessed  the 
entire  rise  and  culmination  of  Beethoven's  genius,  for  he  was 
born  seven  years  earlier  and  outlived  him  by  twenty-three 
years. 

Gyrowetz  presents  the  melancholy  spectacle  of  a  composer 
who  outlived  his  own  fame.  His  works  are  entirely  unknown 
at  the  present  day,  and  his  name  is  hardly  remembered.  His 
sad  fate  is  that  of  many  other  minor  composers,  among  whom 
the  law  of  the  "  survival  of  the  fittest  "  rules  as  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  Of  the  majority  it  may  briefly  be  written,  as  the 
abstract  of  the  historian's  page  :  they  lived  —  and  died. 

When  the  pianoforte  superseded  the  clavichord  a  number 
of  masters  arose,  besides  Mozart  and  Beethoven.  The  most 
famous  were  Clementi  (whose  "  Gradus  ad  Parnassum "  is 
still  indispensable  in  the  training  of  pianists),  Steibelt,  Sterkel, 
Kozeluch,  Dussek,  Woelfl,  Hummel,  Cramer,  Tomaschek,  and 
Field.  Hummel  was  a  pupil  of  Mozart,  and  was  distinguished 
for  his  beautiful  touch,  finished  execution,  and  elegance  of 
style.  His  concertos  and  sonatas  were  once  popular.  His 
septet  in  D  minor  is  a  brilliant  and  charming  work,  and  holds 
a  place  among  the  best  chamber  music.  He  also  composed 
two  noble  masses.  Johann  Baptist  Cramer  was  a  pupil  of 
Clementi.  His  numerous  sonatas,  etc.,  are  shelved,  but  his 
piano  studies  live  as  classical  models. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

SCHUBERT 

The  most  gifted  of  all  the  younger  contemporaries  of  Bee-  Early  train- 
thoven  was  Franz  Peter  Schubert,  born  in  Vienna  on  January  lng 
31,  1797,  and  died  November  19,  1828,  one  year  after  the 
death  of  Beethoven.  His  whole  life  as  a  musician,  therefore, 
was  passed  under  the  dominant  influence  of  the  great  tone 
poet.  Schubert's  father  was  a  schoolmaster,  and  of  his  nine- 
teen children,  the  two  oldest  sons,  Ignaz  and  Ferdinand, 
followed  their  father's  calling.  They  were  musical,  and  were 
taught  the  violin  by  their  father.  Franz  was  the  thirteenth 
son.  The  members  of  this  large  family  were  devoted  to  each 
other,  and  it  is  evident  that  there  was  a  general  love  of 
music  among  them.  This  talent  centered  in  the  little  Franz, 
who  began  to  pick  out  melodies  on  the  old  piano.  When  he 
was  seven  years  old  his  father  gave  him  violin  lessons  and 
his  brother  Ignaz,  piano  lessons,  but  as  he  soon  outstripped 
them,  he  was  placed  under  the  tuition  of  Michael  Holzer,  in 
singing  and  harmony,  and  in  violin,  piano,  and  organ  playing. 
"When  I  wished  to  teach  him  anything  new,"  said  Holzer, 
"  he  always  knew  it  already."  Holzer  used  to  give  him  themes 
on  which  to  extemporize,  for  he  showed  wonderful  facility  in 
this  art,  and  had  harmony  at  his  ringers'  ends.  Before  the 
completion  of  his  eleventh  year  Franz  became  the  leading 
soprano  of  the  Lichtenthal  choir,  and  was  noted  for  the 
beauty  of  his  voice  and  expressive  manner  of  singing.  He 
also  played  violin  solos  in  church,  and  began  to  compose  little 
songs,  and  pieces  for  the  piano  or  for  strings.  Like  the 
prodigy  Mozart,  the  genius  of  Schubert  bore  early  fruits.  In 
1808,  when  Franz  was  in  his  twelfth  year,  he  was  admitted 

285 


286  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

into  the  Imperial  school,  or  "  Convict,"  as  it  was  called. 
Here  he  received  instruction  in  mathematics,  history,  French, 
and  Italian,  as  well  as  in  music.  Though  he  had  plenty  of 
food  for  his  mind,  his  body  was  nearly  starved ;  he  had  but 
two  wretched  meals  a  day,  more  than  eight  hours  apart,  and 
in  the  winter  time  nearly  perished  from  the  cold.  But  little 
pains  were  taken  to  give  him  systematic  instruction  in  musical 
theory  and  composition,  although  Salieri,  the  nominal  con- 
ductor of  the  choir,  gave  him  advice.  Nevertheless  Franz 
began  to  compose  in  almost  every  form  of  music,  large  and 
small.  He  was  brimming  over  with  musical  thoughts,  and 
was  only  hindered  by  the  lack  of  means  to  provide  himself 
with  music  paper. 

The  school  An  orchestra  was  formed  by  the  boys  of  the  choir,  in  which 
ore  estra  ]7ranz  distinguished  himself  from  the  outset.  Their  leader 
was  Joseph  von  Spaun,  a  big  boy,  well  known  as  an  amateur 
musician.  A  warm  friendship  sprang  up  between  him  and 
Franz,  and  he  soon  discovered  the  rare  creative  talent  of  the 
little  fellow,  as  well  as  his  need  of  music  paper.  He  deter- 
mined that  he  should  suffer  this  privation  no  longer,  and 
henceforth  Franz's  consumption  of  music  paper  was  astound- 
ing. His  experience  in  the  orchestra  was  very  useful.  Sym- 
phonies and  overtures  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Kozeluch,  Cherubini, 
and  others  were  practised  diligently.  Franz  played  first  violin 
and  sometimes  conducted.  He  also  delighted  to  play  string 
quartets.  Beethoven  was  the  early  object  of  his  reverence, 
though  the  style  of  Schubert's  juvenile  works  reminds  us 
more  of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  His  sympathies  were  especially 
manifested  for  those  compositions  which  may  be  termed 
poetical  and  imaginative ;  thus  he  gloried  in  the  G  minor 
symphony  of  Mozart,  which  he  declared  was  like  the  songs  of 
angels.  The  earliest  known  composition  of  Schubert  is  the 
four-handed  fantasia  for  piano,  composed  in  1810.  It  contains 
twelve  movements,  each  ending  in  a  different  key  from  that 
in  which  the  piece  begins.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 


SCHUBERT  287 

first  song  of  the  first  of  all  song  composers,  written  in  1811, 
shows  decided  marks  of  originality.  The  boy  was  father  of 
the  man.  This  formless  kind  of  song  cycle  is  called  "  Hagar's 
Lament."  It  consists  of  twelve  numbers  of  a  fragmentary 
character.  Probably  many  of  Franz's  early  compositions  are 
lost,  but  from  this  time  forth  he  had  the  good  habit  of  sign- 
ing his  manuscripts,  and  an  unbroken  record  has  thus  been 
preserved. 

Before  leaving  the  Convict  in  November,  1816,  Schubert  Early  corn- 
had  composed  his  "First  Symphony"  in  D,  several  string  quar-  pos 
tets,  overtures,  a  piano  trio,  variations,  two  fantasias  for  piano, 
songs,  and  other  vocal  pieces.  Before  the  end  of  the  year 
these  were  followed  by  an  octet  for  wind  instruments,  three 
string  quartets,  a  piano  fantasia  for  four  hands,  thirty  minuets, 
eight  canons,  and  many  songs  and  other  vocal  pieces.  One 
of  his  great  qualities  was  his  astonishing  spontaneity  and  pro- 
ductiveness. In  his  short  life  of  thirty-one  years  he  composed 
over  eleven  hundred  and  thirty-seven  works.  This  fecundity 
of  thought  often  betrayed  him  into  prolixity  and  defective 
form.  It  is  a  pity  that  his  early  teachers  did  not  guide  him 
and  give  him  a  thorough  training  in  counterpoint,  but  they 
were  dazzled  by  his  wonderful  talent. 

During  his  apprenticeship  at  the  Convict  he  had  made  great  School- 
progress  as  a  practical  musician,  and  had  had  ample  opportu-  teac  mg 
nities  to  hear  his  music  constantly  performed  at  school  and  at 
home.  On  leaving  the  Convict,  when  his  voice  broke,  he  was 
cast  adrift  on  the  world,  with  the  absolute  necessity  of  earning 
his  daily  bread,  for  the  poverty  of  his  family  rendered  this  im- 
perative. His  only  immediate  opening  was  to  become  an  assist- 
ant in  his  father's  school.  For  three  years  he  now  settled 
down  to  an  existence  of  unspeakable  dreariness  in  teaching 
the  children  of  the  poorer  classes  the  alphabet  and  the  rudi- 
ments of  arithmetic.  The  spectacle  of  so  gifted  a  youth  tied 
down  to  such  tedious  drudgery  is  melancholy  indeed  ;  and  yet 
these  years  were  among  the  most  prolific  of  his  life.  Other 


288 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Extraor- 
dinary pro- 
ductivity 


men  of  genius  have  been  obliged  to  submit  to  similar  disci- 
pline, which  in  most  cases  has  served  as  a  spur  to  their 
creative  powers.  Some  of  his  immortal  works  were  writ- 
ten during  this  slavish  routine.  His  whole  being  centered 
in  music,  and  the  most  trying  experiences  of  life  could  not 
render  him  unhappy  and  misanthropical.  His  disposition  was 
naturally  cheerful  and  even  jovial,  and  he  soon  formed  friend- 
ships of  the  most  romantic  nature  with  genial  spirits  of  his 
own  sex.  These  friends  became  warmly  attached  to  him,  for 
he  was  faithful  and  true,  simple-minded  and  affectionate. 
Among  them  was  Johann  Mayrhofer,  ten  years  his  senior,  and 
a  gifted  poet,  whose  words  Schubert  often  set  to  music. 
Another  friend  was  Franz  von  Schober,  who  was  already  ac- 
quainted with  some  of  Schubert's  songs,  and  had  conceived 
an  enthusiastic  admiration  for  the  composer.  "When  he 
found  that  he  was  a  boy  of  about  his  own  age,  wearing  out 
his  nerves  in  a  schoolroom,  he  determined  to  interpose."  He 
offered  Schubert  a  home  with  him,  and  became  his  chum. 
Subsequently  he  found  another  friend  in  Johann  Michael  Vogl, 
the  imperial  opera  singer,  who  was  twenty  years  the  senior 
of  Schubert,  and  was  distinguished  as  a  dramatic  artist  of 
rare  ability. 

From  1814  on  we  find  a  steady  improvement  in  the  charac- 
ter of  Schubert's  music,  and  we  are  astonished  at  his  versa- 
tility ;  he  exercised  his  genius  in  almost  every  form  of  music. 
During  that  year  he  composed  his  "Second  Symphony"  in  B !?, 
five  string  quartets,  an  overture  in  the  Italian  style,  eleven 
dances  for  horns  and  strings,  twenty-two  songs,  including  the 
famous  "  Gretchen  am  Spinnrad "  to  Goethe's  words,  and 
his  "  First  Mass  "  in  F, —  a  work  conceived  in  the  true  church 
style  and  full  of  melodic  beauty. 

In  1815  he  composed  the  "  Second  Mass  "  in  G,  the  "  Third 
Mass  "  in  B !?,  the  "  Third  Symphony  "  in  D,  one  opera  and  six 
operettas,  a  Stabat  Mater  and  a  Salve  Regina,  four  piano 
sonatas,  a  string  quartet  in  G  minor,  thirty  pieces  for  piano, 


SCHUBERT  289 

and  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  songs.  Some  of  these  songs 
are  among  the  most  characteristic  and  famous  :  "  Wanderer's 
Nachtlied,"  "Rastlose  Liebe,"  the  charming  "  Heidenroslein," 
the  beautiful  "  Nahe  des  Geliebten,"  the  Ossian  songs,  and 
the  intensely  dramatic  and  impressive  "  Erlkonig."  Schubert 
happened  to  come  across  Goethe's  ballad,  and  no  sooner  read 
it  than  he  was  seized  with  a  "  fit  of  wild  inspiration,  and  was 
dashing  the  music  upon  paper  when  his  friend  Spaun  came 
in  and  found  him.  It  was  all  done  in  a  short  time,  the  rush- 
ing accompaniment  and  all ;  and  that  same  evening  it  was  sung 
at  the  Convict  before  his  old  teachers  and  fellow-pupils." 
Strange  to  say,  it  was  received  rather  coldly  at  first. 

In  1816  he  wrote  the  "  Tragic  Symphony,"  the  "  Fifth  Sym-  Works 
phony  "  in  B  I?,  an  overture,  a  concerto  for  violin  and  orchestra, 
a  rondo  for  violin  and  orchestra,  a  string  quartet,  a  string 
trio,  a  number  of  piano  pieces,  four  cantatas,  an  unfinished 
opera,  a  Magnificat,  Salve  Regina,  and  other  church  music, 
including  his  beautiful  "  Stabat  Mater,"  one  of  his  best  early 
compositions,  and  besides  these  no  less  than  one  hundred  and 
thirty-one  songs,  of  which  ninety-nine  have  been  preserved, 
among  them  the  famous  "  Wanderer,"  Mignon's  song,  — 
"Kennst  du  das  Land,"  — "  Der  Konig  im  Thule,"  "  Der 
Fischer,"  and  "  Jager's  Abendlied," — songs  that  are  stamped 
with  the  seal  of  Schubert's  unique  individuality  and  lyric 
genius.  The  record  of  his  productivity  during  these  three  years 
of  teaching  is  marvelous,  and  all  accomplished  in  the  intervals 
of  school  drudgery !  That  a  youth  of  nineteen  should  have 
accomplished  such  wonders  shows  that  he  was  inspired.  No 
wonder  that  his  friend  Vogl  considered  Schubert's  songs  the 
utterance  of  a  musical  clairvoyance,  —  the  direct  inspiration 
that  sprang  up  unbidden  in  his  soul  from  a  divine  source. 
Unlike  Mozart  he  did  not  carefully  perfect  his  works  in  his 
head  before  he  wrote  them  down ;  and  unlike  Beethoven  he 
did  not  sketch  his  ideas  in  notebooks,  and  then  gradually  build 
up  great  works  by  a  slow  and  careful  process  of  selection, 


290  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

compression,  and  elaboration.  This  wonderful  facility  was 
often  Schubert's  weakness.  It  is  remarkable  that  during 
this  third  year  of  his  school-teaching  he  should  have  pro- 
duced a  greater  number  of  compositions  than  in  any  sub- 
sequent year  of  his  life.  Among  the  eighty-six  productions 
of  the  following  year  (1817)  are  fifty-two  songs,  many  of 
them  set  to  Mayrhofer's  words.  The  list  includes  the  famous 
"Lob  der  Thranen  "  and  "  Die  Forelle,"  and  of  large  works,  his 
"  Sixth  Symphony  "  in  C,  three  overtures  in  the  Italian  style 
(prompted,  no  doubt,  by  Rossini's  triumphant  visit  to  Vienna 
the  same  year),  several  piano  sonatas,  and  miscellaneous  piano 
pieces. 

The  next  year,  1818,  witnessed  an  episode  in  Schubert's 
life.  He  was  engaged  as  teacher  of  music  to  Count  Ester- 
hazy,  and  went  to  stay  at  his  country  seat  in  Hungary  for  the 
summer,  where  he  gave  lessons  to  the  little  daughter  Caroline. 
All  the  family  were  musical,  and  Schubert's  intercourse  with 
them  was  very  pleasant.  He  became  a  favorite  with  the 
household,  and  from  this  time  until  his  death  he  was  always 
welcome  whenever  he  chose  to  come.  He  returned  to  Vienna, 
however,  in  the  autumn,  and  early  in  1819  we  find  him 
sharing  a  gloomy  and  ill-furnished  room  with  the  poet 
Mayrhofer,  with  whom  he  led  a  thoroughly  Bohemian  life. 

During  the  three  years  1818—1820  Schubert  composed 
about  one  hundred  works:  the  "Mass  in  C,"  the  "Mass  in 
At>,"  "  Salve  Regina,"  the  "  Twenty-third  Psalm,"  the  Easter 
cantata  "  Lazarus,"  and  other  sacred  music,  the  operetta 
"Die  Zwillingsbriider,"  an  overture  for  orchestra,  quartets, 
quintets,  dances  for  piano,  and  many  songs. 

The  year  1821  may  be  considered  as  the  turning  point  in 
his  career,  for  his  enthusiastic  friends  succeeded  at  length  in 
bringing  his  name  before  the  public  in  the  most  favorable 
light  as  a  song  composer.  Among  his  admirers  were  the 
Sonnleithner  family,  who  were  cultivated  musicians.  At  their 
house  Schubert's  music  was  constantly  performed.  Leopold 


SCHUBERT  291 

von  Sonnleithner  tried  in  vain  to  get  a  publisher  for  the 
"  Erlkonig";  finally  it  was  printed  by  subscription,  and  the 
sale  was  so  rapid  that  Schubert  was  able  to  pay  his  debts 
from  the  proceeds.  A  concert  was  also  given,  and  his  friend 
Vogl  sang  the  "Erlkonig"  with  rapturous  applause.  This 
distinguished  and  highly  cultivated  singer  was  captivated 
with  Schubert's  songs,  and  used  his  influence  to  make  them 
known  to  the  public.  On  this  occasion  was  sung,  also,  one 
of  Schubert's  happiest  inspirations,  the  double  quartet  for 
male  voices  with  string  accompaniment,  "  Song  of  the  Spirits 
over  the  Waters  "  of  Goethe.  It  is  strange  that  this  beautiful 
composition  failed  to  please  the  audience.  We  smile  at  the 
following  criticism  of  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung :  "The  eight- 
part  chorus  of  Herr  Schubert  is  a  farrago  of  all  sorts  of 
modulations  and  vague  departure  from  ordinary  form,  —  no 
sense,  no  order,  no  meaning.  The  composer  resembles  a  big 
wagoner  who  drives  a  team  of  eight  horses,  and  turns  now  to 
the  right,  now  to  the  left,  getting  at  one  time  out  of  the  road, 
then  upsetting,  and  pursuing  this  game  without  once  making 
any  honest  headway." 

During  the  same  year  eighteen  of  Schubert's  songs  were  The"Schu- 
published,  and  his  name    became    generally  known  to   the  bertia  en 
public.    Social  reunions,  under  the  name  of  "  Schubertiaden," 
were  organized  by  his  friends  and  admirers.    At  these  lively 
meetings   songs,    dances,   and   conviviality    were    combined. 
The    music    always    consisted    of    Schubert's    compositions. 
Here  he  was  in  his  element,  and  enjoyed  every  moment, 
utterly  oblivious  of  the  past  and  future. 

Schubert  was  now  twenty-three  years  old,  and  the  light  of 
his  genius  was  dawning  on  the  musical  horizon.  Every  month 
was  fruitful  in  works  that  are  now  prized  as  among  the  richest 
possessions  of  musical  art.  In  1821  appeared  the  beautiful 
songs,  "  Geheimes,"  "  Suleika,"  "  Sei  mir  gegriisst,"  "  Lob 
der  Thranen";  in  1822,  "Alphonsound  Estrella"  (his  first  im- 
portant opera),  the  "  Mass  in  A^,"  his  wonderful  "  Unfinished 


292  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Symphony  "  in  B  minor,  and  the  exquisite  song,  "  Friihlings- 
glaube,"  by  Uhland.  Then  followed  in  1823  the  operas 
"Fierabras"  and  "  Der  hausliche  Krieg,"  and  the  music  to 
the  drama  "  Rosamunde."  These  operas  were  unsuccessful, 
owing  partly  to  poor  librettos,  but  more  perhaps  to  Schubert's 
lack  of  stage  instinct.  We  find  everywhere  a  wealth  of  beau- 
tiful melody,  but  his  lyric  genius  and  easy  inventiveness 
proved  a  stumbling  block  ;  yet  much  of  the  music  will  always 
be  welcome  in  the  concert  room.  The  overture  and  entr'acte 
music  of  "  Rosamunde "  are  special  favorites.  His  piano 
sonata  in  A  minor,  op.  143,  was  also  composed  in  1823,  and 
several  of  his  most  charming  songs,  "  Vergissmeinnicht," 
"Du  bist  die  Ruh,"  "Der  Zwerg,"  "Barcarolle,"  "  Lachen 
und  Weinen,"  and  his  celebrated  "  Die  schone  Miillerin,"  — 
a  set  of  twenty  songs  to  the  words  of  Wilhelm  Muller.  We 
read  in  Kreissle's  biography  of  Schubert  that  at  this  period  the 
clouds  of  destiny  first  gathered  thickly  around  him  ;  repeated 
disappointments,  a  monotonous  existence,  and  bodily  weak- 
ness contributing  to  produce  a  state  of  extreme  depression. 
In  Schubert's  diary  kept  at  this  time  we  read,  "No  one  fathoms 
another's  grief,  no  one  another's  joy.  People  think  they  are 
ever  going  to  one  another,  and  they  only  go  near  one  another. 
Oh,  the  misery  of  him  who  knows  this  by  experience  !  My  pro- 
ductions spring  from  my  sorrow,  those  which  are  the  product 
of  pain  seem  to  please  the  great  world  most.  The  loftiest 
inspiration  is  but  a  step  from  the  absolutely  ludicrous,  just  as 
the  deepest  wisdom  is  so  near  akin  to  crass  stupidity."  One 
is  here  reminded  of  King  Lear's  ravings.  Schubert  writes  to 
a  friend,  "  Picture  to  yourself  a  man  whose  health  can  never 
be  reestablished,  whose  most  brilliant  hopes  have  come  to 
nothing,  whose  enthusiasm  for  the  beautiful  threatens  to 
vanish  altogether  —  and  then  ask  yourself  if  such  a  condition 
does  not  represent  a  miserable  and  unhappy  man. 

Meine  Ruh  ist  hin,  mein  Herz  ist  schwer, 
Ich  finde  sie  nimmer  und  nimmer  mehr." 


SCHUBERT  293 

This  morbid  state  of  mind,  however,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  composing,  and  his  noble  and  cheerful  octet  in  F  was 
produced  at  this  time.  In  writing  to  his  brother  Ferdinand 
in  July  he  draws  the  picture  of  the  tone  poet  finding  consola- 
tion for  the  disappointments  of  life  in  the  exercise  of  his  art, 
and  in  the  next  year  he  became  once  more  himself,  jovial  and 
buoyant.  This  happy  mood  was  brought  about  by  a  long 
excursion  which  he  made  with  his  friend  Vogl  in  the  beautiful 
region  of  Upper  Austria. 

The  only  romantic  passion  which  Schubert  is  known  to  Romance 
have  had  was  for  Caroline  Esterhazy,  who  now  was  a  lovely 
young  lady  of  seventeen.  "  That  she  was  aware  of  his  passion 
cannot  be  doubted,  and  one  day  she  asked  him,  with  pre- 
tended feelings  of  earnestness,  why  he  never  dedicated  any 
of  his  pieces  to  her.  He  replied,  '  What  would  be  the  use  ? 
All  that  I  do  is  dedicated  to  you.'  '  His  love,  however,  was 
not  reciprocated.  She  admired  him,  as  did  the  rest  of  her 
family,  but  he  was  too  far  removed  in  station  and  in  person- 
ality to  be  attractive  to  her.  No  doubt  some  of  the  romantic 
beauty  of  his  later  music  may  have  been  inspired  by  this  one 
tender  passion  of  his  life.  His  visit  in  1824  to  the  Ester- 
hazys  at  their  country  seat  in  Hungary  certainly  had  an 
influence  on  the  music  composed  about  that  time.  We  find 
an  unmistakable  Hungarian  flavor  in  his  "  Divertissement  a  la 
Hongroise "  for  four  hands,  the  quartet  in  A  minor,  the 
variations  in  A  t?,  his  waltzes,  and  the  superb  sonata  in  C  for 
four  hands.  Among  the  vocal  compositions  written  at  the 
Esterhazys  was  the  famous  quartet,  "  Gebet  vor  der  Schlacht." 
This  furnished  an  example  of  his  wonderful  readiness.  "  One 
morning,  at  breakfast,  the  countess  begged  him  to  set  De  la 
Motte  Fouque's  poem  to  music.  In  the  evening  he  presented 
the  quartet,  and  it  was  practised  at  once." 

In  1825  he  finished  his  "Ninth  Symphony,"  but  it  is  lost. 
He  also  composed  three  piano  sonatas,  the  one  in  A  minor, 
op.  42,  being  altogether  the  best  he  ever  wrote.  Among 


294  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

the  twenty-two  songs  of  this  year  are  the  "  Die  junge  Nonne," 
"Allmacht,"  and  the  group  of  seven  to  Scott's  "Lady  of 
the  Lake,"  of  which  the  most  noted  is  the  "  Ave  Maria." 

Among  the  works  of  1826  are  the  Shakespearean  songs, 
"Who  is  Sylvia?"  and  "Hark,  hark,  the  Lark";  sonata 
fantasia  for  piano  in  G,  "  Marche  heroique  "  for  four  hands, 
rondo  for  piano  and  violin,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the 
string  quartets  in  G  major  and  D  minor  (the  so-called  posthu- 
mous quartets).  The  latter  stands  beside  Beethoven's,  and 
has  never  been  surpassed  by  any  composer. 

In  1827  Schubert  hoped  to  receive  the  appointment  of 
vice-chapelmaster,  but  this  post  was  conferred  on  Josef 
Weigl,  the  composer  of  the  opera  "  Swiss  Family  "  ;  thus 
Schubert  was  disappointed  in  this  chance  of  obtaining  a 
regular  income  and  an  honorable  position.  The  small  sums 
which  he  received  from  his  works  were  insufficient  for  his 
humble  wants ;  all  through  his  short  life  he  was  pinched  by 
poverty.  In  no  one  year  of  his  life  did  he  have  an  income  of 
five  hundred  dollars.  Perhaps  the  largest  fee  he  ever  received 
was  a  purse  of  one  hundred  gulden  from  the  Gesellschaft 
der  Musik-freunde  in  1826,  in  reward  for  the  "Twenty-third 
Psalm  "  and  "  Gott  in  der  Natur  "  written  for  them.  In  return 
for  this  compliment  he  presented  to  them  in  1828  the  score  of 
his  symphony  in  C,  but  at  the  time  they  were  unable  to 
appreciate  the  wonderful  character  of  this  monumental  work. 
No  doubt  he  would  have  had  a  better  chance  of  general 
recognition  if  he  had  not  stood  in  the  shadow  of  Beethoven's 
commanding  genius. 

It  is  a  pity  that  Beethoven  and  Schubert  did  not  live  to 
become  intimate.  The  great  symphonist  was  too  much  pre- 
occupied to  seek  out  the  shy  and  modest  younger  master. 
During  Beethoven's  last  illness  some  of  Schubert's  songs 
were  shown  him,  and  he  expressed  his  great  admiration  for 
their  originality  and  beauty :  "  Some  day  he  will  make  a 
noise  in  the  world."  Schubert  and  others  went  to  Beethoven's 


SCHUBERT 


295 


house  during  his  last  hours,  and  stood  by  his  bedside.  The 
dying  man  made  signs  to  his  visitors  with  his  hand  which 
they  could  not  comprehend.  Schubert  was  deeply  moved,  for 
he  worshiped  Beethoven  as  a  superior  being.  Among  the 
torch  bearers  at  the  grave  was  Schubert.  Afterwards  he 
went  to  a  tavern  with  a  friend,  filled  two  glasses  with 
wine,  and  drank  the  first  to  the  memory  of  Beethoven,  and 
the  second  to  him  who  should  be  the  first  to  follow  him, 
little  thinking  that  he  himself  would  be  summoned  in  less 
than  two  years,  and  that  he  would  be  buried  near  the  great 
man  whom  he  revered. 

During    the    same   year,    1827,    Schubert    composed   his  Last  corn- 
profound  and  pathetic  "  Winter  Journey,"  a  cycle  of  twenty-  pos 
four  songs,  which,  together  with  his  fourteen  "  Swan  Songs  " 
of  a  year  later,  mark  the  culmination  of  his  lyric   genius. 
Among  these  masterpieces  are  the  "  Serenade,"  "  Am  Meer," 
"  Aufenthalt,"  "Ihr  Bild,"   and  "Das  Fischermadchen." 

In  the  last  year  of  his  life,  1828,  he  composed  the  noblest 
of  all  his  church  music,  the  "Mass  in  E !?."  "  His  four  masses  " 
says  Frost,  "  are  superior  in  refinement  and  true  religious 
style  to  any  of  Haydn  or  Mozart,  the  Requiem  of  the  latter 
excepted,  and  may  worthily  take  rank  with  Beethoven's 
setting  of  the  sacred  office  in  C.  Schubert's  "Mass  in  F,"  com- 
posed at  the  age  of  seventeen,  is  as  remarkable  an  evidence 
of  early  genius  as  any  of  the  better-known  works  of  Mendels- 
sohn's boyhood.  During  the  last  year  he  also  composed  his 
string  quintet  in  C,  which  among  his  chamber  music  is  only 
surpassed  by  the  quartet  in  D  minor.  He  also  wrote  three 
of  his  finest  sonatas  for  piano,  in  C  minor,  A,  and  B  P,  and  his 
only  oratorio,  "  Miriam's  Song  of  Triumph,"  a  splendid  work 
which  labors  under  the  disadvantage  of  having  the  vocal 
score  supported  only  by  piano  accompaniment.  But  above  all 
these  last  works  stands  the  "Tenth  Symphony"  in  C  major.  The  "Tenth 
This  glorious  manifestation  of  his  genius  he  did  not  live  to  ^^^£1 
hear.  As  soon  as  it  was  finished  the  score  was  presented  to  at  Leipzig 


296  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik-freunde.  The  parts  were  copied 
out  and  the  symphony  rehearsed,  but  its  extreme  length  and 
exceeding  difficulty  (for  that  time)  raised  insurmountable 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  its  performance,  and  it  was  returned 
to  the  composer.  In  1838,  ten  years  later,  Schumann  rescued 
this  great  masterpiece  from  oblivion.  It  was  produced  at  the 
Gewandhaus  in  Leipzig,  on  March  22,  1830,  under  Mendels- 
sohn's direction.  It  made  a  profound  impression,  and  was 
recognized  at  once  as  the  most  remarkable  work  since 
Beethoven's  "  Ninth  Symphony."  It  was  not  heard  in  Vienna 
until  1850,  and  then  met  with  a  cold  reception,  which  shows 
that  Leipzig  was  far  more  cultivated  in  music  at  this  time 
than  the  city  that  gave  him  birth.  "A  prophet  is  not  with- 
out honor  save  in  his  own  country." 

Schumann's  Schumann  thus  expressed  himself  after  the  first  triumphant 
theTnf  performance  :  "  We  are  transported  into  an  unknown  region, 
phony  Life  in  all  its  phases,  color  in  exquisite  gradations,  the 

minutest  accuracy  and  fitness  of  expression  are  here,  while 
permeating  the  whole  work  is  that  romantic  feeling  so  charac- 
teristic of  Schubert's  music.  This  heavenly  long-drawn-out 
symphony  is  like  some  thick  romance  of  Jean  Paul  in  four 
volumes  that  we  wish  would  never  end.  ...  A  delicious 
feeling  takes  possession  of  us,  like  that  we  get  from  some 
lovely  legend  or  fairy  tale. 

"  Schubert's  easy  and  brilliant  mastery  over  the  resources 
of  the  orchestra  would  be  unintelligible  if*  one  did  not  know 
that  six  (nine  !)  other  symphonies  had  preceded  this.  The 
instruments  converse  with  one  another  like  human  voices  in 
solo  and  chorus.  Except  in  Beethoven  I  have  nowhere  found 
such  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  organs  of  the  human 
voice.  The  complete  independence,  however,  in  which  this 
work  stands  with  respect  to  Beethoven's,  shows  its  mascu- 
line originality." 

A  few  months  before  Schubert's  death  a  private  concert 
was  given  for  his  benefit,  which  shows  that  the  musical 


SCHUBERT  297 

people  of  Vienna  were  growing  more  appreciative.  The  pro- 
gramme consisted  entirely  of  his  own  compositions,  among 
them  the  noble  trio  in  El?  was  played  in  public  for  the  first 
time.  He  received  one  hundred  and  sixty  dollars  from  the 
receipts  of  this  concert,  —  a  princely  sum  in  his  estimation. 
This  signal  success  inspired  the  idea  of  another  concert,  but 
alas  !  the  next  programme  of  his  works  was  not  performed 
until  the  master  was  cold  in  his  grave. 

Schubert's  health  now  began  to  fail.  He  was  troubled  with  Last  illness 
weakness,  severe  headache,  and  vertigo.  The  eleven  hundred  an  ea 
and  thirty-seven  compositions  which  he  had  produced  in  nine- 
teen years,  combined  with  poor  living,  were  more  than  enough 
to  sap  his  energies  and  overtax  his  brain.  Cerebral  excite- 
ment caused  an  excessive  rush  of  blood  to  his  head.  In  Oc- 
tober he  made  a  short  excursion  into  the  country  with  his 
brother  and  friends,  to  improve  his  health,  but  soon  after 
his  return  to  Vienna,  his  appetite  entirely  failed  him  and  he 
soon  took  to  his  bed.  He  wrote  a  last  letter  to  his  lifelong 
friend  Schober,  as  follows  : 

Dear  Schober :  I  am  ill.  I  have  neither  eaten  nor  drunk  anything 
for  eleven  days,  and  shift,  weak  and  weary,  from  my  chair  to  my  bed 
and  back  again.  ...  If  I  attempt  to  eat  anything  it  will  not  stay  by 
me.  Will  you  be  so  kind  as  to  console  me  in  this  desperate  condition 
by  the  loan  of  some  more  books?  I  have  read  Cooper's  "Last  of  the 
Mohicans,"  "Spy,"  "Pilot,"  and  "Pioneer."  If  you  have  any  more  of 
his,  I  implore  you  to  send  them  to  me,  ...  or  anything  else. 

Your  friend, 

SCHUBERT. 

His  condition  soon  became  worse,  and  the  doctors  thought 
he  was  threatened  with  typhus  fever.  He  asked  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  "  What  is  going  to  happen  to  me  ?  What  are  they 
doing  to  me?"  His  brother  and  his  physician  replied  hope- 
fully, but  in  vain.  He  said  solemnly :  "  No,  no,  here  is  my 
end.  ...  I  entreat  you  to  carry  me  to  my  own  room,  and 
don't  leave  me  in  this  hole  in  the  earth.  What !  don't  I  deserve 
a  place  above  ground  ? "  His  brother  tried  to  convince  him 


298  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

that  he  was  lying  in  his  own  bed,  but  Franz  replied,  "  No, 
no,  it  is  not  true ;  Beethoven  is  not  laid  here."  This  was 
taken  as  evidence  of  his  desire  to  rest  near  Beethoven,  and 
the  wish  was  reverently  respected.  "  On  the  next  day,"  writes 
John  Fiske,  "  there  passed  away  one  of  the  sweetest  and  tru- 
est souls  that  ever  looked  with  human  eyes." 

Appearance  If  the  portraits  of  Schubert  are  true,  his  face  is  the  mirror 
acterC  "  °^  kis  sou^  an<^  character.  Simplicity,  kindness,  truthfulness, 
fidelity,  modesty,  and  amiability  were  his  distinguishing  traits. 
He  was  short  in  stature,  round-shouldered,  with  plump  arms 
and  hands.  His  face  was  full  and  puffy  and  homely,  yet  when 
he  became  animated  his  eyes  betrayed  the  sacred  fire  of  his 
soul.  In  general  society  Schubert  was  awkward  and  shy,  and 
shunned  people  of  rank,  but  he  was  very  companionable 
among  his  intimate  friends,  and  it  was  his  greatest  pleasure 
to  discuss  music  over  a  glass  of  wine  in  some  cosy  tavern. 

Schubert  was  in  truth  a  child  of  nature,  whom  to  know 
was  to  love  and  esteem.  His  faults  may  be  summed  up  as 
a  general  incapacity  to  understand  his  own  worldly  interests. 
All  his  friends  agreed  that  he  was  entirely  free  from  envy  and 
hatred ;  he  was  high-minded  and  true  in  all  the  relations  of 
life.  Like  Beethoven  he  was  an  enthusiastic  lover  of  nature. 
His  industry  and  power  of  work  were  marvelous.  Usually  he 
began  to  compose  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  as  soon 
as  he  was  awake ;  sitting  on  his  bed  he  would  write  inces- 
santly until  breakfast  time.  He  was  generally  absorbed  in 
musical  creation  for  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  but  often 
gave  up  the  afternoon  to  the  pleasures  of  social  intercourse. 
In  facility  of  composition  he  has  hardly  been  equaled  by  any 
one.  He  had  only  to  read  a  poem  through  once  or  twice  and 
it  had  composed  itself  in  his  mind,  so  to  speak,  with  a  char- 
acteristic melody,  clothed  with  an  appropriate  accompani- 
ment, and  expressing  vividly  the  true  meaning  of  the  words. 
It  was  impossible  for  him  to  evolve  beautiful  ideas  from  worth- 
less words,  and  therefore  it  is  not  strange  that  among  his 


SCHUBERT  299 

six  hundred  and  fifty  songs  we  find  some  which  are  insig- 
nificant and  weak. 

"If  fruitfulness,"  says  Schumann,  "be  a  characteristic  of 
genius,  Schubert  is  certainly  one  of  the  greatest ;  by  degrees 
he  might  have  set  to  music  the  whole  body  of  German  poetry. 
In  whatever  direction  he  wished  his  music  to  flow,  it  gushed 
forth  in  streams,  and  Telemann,  who  demands  of  a  good  com- 
poser ability  to  set  a  door-plate  to  music,  would  have  found 
his  man  in  Schubert.  ^Eschylus  and  Klopstock,  both  so  hard 
to  set  to  music,  yielded  to  his  treatment  as  easily  as  the 
flowing  strains  of  Wilhelm  Muller  and  others." 

Schubert  was  the  greatest  song  composer  that  ever  lived.   Preemi- 
He  is   the  representative   master  here  as   Beethoven  is  in  song^o 
symphonic  music.    He  was  the  creator  of  the  modern  German  poser 
Lied,  for  the  few  songs  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven 
did  not  serve  as  models  to  him,  except,  perhaps,  the  one  song 
cycle  of  the  latter,  "An  die  feme  Geliebte." 

From  time  immemorial  the  Germans  had  their  popular 
songs  (Volkslieder).  The  minnesingers,  mastersingers,  and 
the  Lutheran  Church  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  popular 
music  in  Germany,  and  prepared  the  ground  for  her  great 
composers.  During  the  sway  of  Italian  opera,  however,  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  Volkslied  was  neglected.  Then 
came  a  reaction,  and  a  multitude  of  vocal  pieces,  called 
odes,  were  in  fashion. 

Lessing  marks  the  new  birth  of  German  literature.  Herder, 
the  poet,  revived  the  feeling  for  the  poetry  of  the  old  Volks- 
lied, and  with  the  advent  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Heine  a 
new  and  glorious  era  dawned  on  lyric  poetry.  Schubert  flour- 
ished at  the  right  moment  to  avail  himself  of  the  beautiful 
songs  of  Goethe,  Heine,  Uhland,  Byron,  Scott,  and  other  con- 
temporary poets.  Married  to  the  inspired  music  of  Schubert, 
their  words  acquired  deeper  feeling  and  higher  poetic  meaning. 

Among  the  multitude  of  song  composers  who  have  followed 
the  path  of  Schubert  there  are  several  who  are  worthy  of  a 


300 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


place  beside  him.  Many  songs  of  Schumann  and  Franz  are 
as  full  of  pathos  and  poetic  beauty,  and  sometimes  show  more 
refinement  in  the  choice  and  careful  treatment  of  the  words 
and  the  accompaniment,  but  in  spontaneity,  variety,  wealth 
of  imagination,  dramatic  fire,  and  ear-haunting,  characteristic 
melody,  Schubert  surpasses  them  all.  His  wonderful  melo- 
dies are  enhanced  by  an  endless  variety  of  rhythmical  accom- 
paniments full  of  rich  and  daring  modulations.  "  He  could 
make  one  believe  that  C  major  and  F$  minor  are  twin  sisters." 

What  song  is  there  by  any  other  composer  that  matches  the 
"  Erlkonig  "  in  dramatic  intensity  ?  This  was  published  as 
opus  i.  The  famous  "Miller  "  songs,  "  Winter  Journey,"  and 
"  Swan  Songs  "  possess  a  certain  ease,  freedom,  and  sponta- 
neity that  later  song  composers  have  not  equaled.  What  is 
more  beautiful  and  fascinating  in  all  music  than  his  "  Sei  mir 
gegriisst,"  "  Du  bist  die  Ruh,"  "  Friihlingsglaube,"  "Die 
junge  Nonne,"  "Tod  und  das  Madchen,"  "Barcarolle," 
"Geheimes,"  "  Suleika,"  "  Trockne  Blumen,"  "AmMeer," 
and  "Serenade"  ?  These  songs  awaken  in  us  an  irresistible 
longing,  a  homesickness  of  the  soul.  His  series  of  connected 
songs  are  distinguished  by  their  subtle  affinities  with  each 
other,  presenting  a  complete  psychological  development  of 
poetical  and  emotional  ideas,  a  continuous  flow  of  representa- 
tive images.  All  the  contrast  of  moods  —  joy,  sorrow,  hope, 
longing,  love,  hate,  comfort,  and  submission  —  follow  one 
another  in  harmonious  sequence.  Schumann's  enthusiasm  for 
Schubert  knew  no  bounds.  "  There  was  a  time,"  he  says, 
"  when  it  gave  me  no  pleasure  to  speak  of  him.  I  could  only 
talk  of  him  by  night  to  the  trees  and  stars.  Who  amongst  us 
at  some  time  or  another  has  not  been  sentimental  ?  Charmed 
by  this  new  spirit,  whose  capacities  seemed  to  me  boundless, 
deaf  to  everything  that  could  be  urged  against  him,  my 
thoughts  were  absorbed  in  Schubert. 

"  He  will  ever  be  the  prime  musical  favorite  of  youth.  He 
shows  — what  charms  the  young  —  a  full  heart,  bold  thoughts, 


SCHUBERT  301 

and  rapid  impulse.  He  tells  them  of  pet  fancies,  romantic 
histories,  loves,  and  adventures,  and  throws  a  dash  of  humor 
into  the  picture,  but  not  so  much  as  to  disturb  the  gentleness 
and  tenderness  of  his  ideal ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  he  adds 
wings  to  the  fancy  of  his  interpreter  in  a  way  unknown  to 
any  other  composer  but  Beethoven." 

In  his  instrumental  music  Schubert  was  the  true  successor 
of  his  great  model,  Beethoven.  He  was  not,  however,  a  mere 
imitator  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  very  remarkable  how  little  we 
feel  the  influence  of  Beethoven's  style  in  Schubert's  motives 
and  thematic  features.  His  melodies  are  all  his  own,  and  bear 
the  stamp  of  his  peculiar  character  and  individuality.  He 
shows  his  affinity  to  his  great  prototype  chiefly  in  the  broad 
outlines  of  form,  massive  rhythmical  effects,  bold  modulations, 
dramatic  climax,  emotional  depth,  and  intensity  of  the  slow 
movements,  the  fire  and  grandeur  of  the  finales,  the  variety 
and  effectiveness  of  the  instrumentation.  The  most  striking 
quality  of  Schubert's  music  is  its  wealth  of  lyric  expression. 
What  exquisite  melody,  pure,  nai've,  and  refined,  is  bestowed 
lavishly  everywhere,  even  to  excess  ! 

The  charge  has  been  made  that  many  of  his  movements  are 
diffuse  and  spun  out.    Yet  Schumann  well  named  his  longest 
work  "  the  symphony  of  divine  length."    His  diffuseness  was   His  method 
the  result  of  his  marvelous  spontaneity.    Whatever  he  wanted  ^^  °ared 
was  at  his  fingers'  ends  ;  he  never  hesitated,  and  never  seemed  with  that  of 
to  aim  at  making  innovations  or  doing  things  for  mere  effect. 
He  rarely  revised  his  music  ;  in  this  he  was  very  different 
from  Beethoven,  who  worked  over  his  themes  again  and  again, 
transforming  almost  every  measure.    In  improvisation  Bee- 
thoven was  bold  and  impassioned,  but  as  soon  as  he  took  his 
pen  in  his  hand  he  became  all  at  once  extremely  cautious  and 
hesitating.    This  is  shown  vividly  in  his  remarkable  notebooks, 
in  which  he  jotted  down  his  musical  thoughts  as  they  occurred 
to  him.    All  was  gradual  and  with  him  all  was  organic ;  his 
music  grew  like  a  plant  or  tree. 


302  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

Schubert's  method  was  different ;  everything  seemed  to 
come  to  him  at  once,  without  effort.  For  this  reason  many  of 
his  early  works  do  not  fulfill  the  highest  ideal,  compared  with 
the  standard  he  afterwards  reached.  Schubert  did  not  ex- 
tend or  modify  the  traditional  form  of  the  symphony,  quartet, 
and  sonata,  but  followed  the  general  outlines  marked  out  by 
Beethoven,  just  as  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Brahms,  and 
other  recent  composers  have  done.  Is  this  not  proof  that 
musicians,  like  poets,  may  use  forms  that  are  centuries  old 
and  endow  them  with  freshness  and  newness  by  virtue  of 
their  individuality,  originality,  and  poetic  gift  ?  The  theory 
that  Beethoven's  "Ninth  Symphony"  is  the  last  great  work  of 
pure  instrumental  music  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that  the 
symphonies  of  Schubert,  Schumann,  Tschaikowsky,  Brahms, 
Dvorak,  and  others  are  as  eagerly  listened  to  nowadays, 
with  as  much  joy  and  delight,  as  the  symphonic  poems  of  Ber- 
lioz, Liszt,  and  Strauss,  and  the  musical  dramas  of  Wagner. 
Have  these  supplanted  the  cyclical  instrumental  forms? 
Assuredly  not.  The  organic  form  of  the  symphony  still  re- 
mains the  highest  manifestation  of  pure  music,  though  the 
future  may  give  birth  to  something  beyond  it.  Schubert,  by 
virtue  of  his  poetic  gift,  endowed  this  form,  inherited  from 
Beethoven,  with  a  romance  and  a  magic  that  have  never 
been  surpassed.  Liszt  called  Schubert  the  most  romantic 
and  poetical  of  all  composers. 

Here  one  may  ask,  What  is  the  difference  between  the 
classical  and  the  romantic  in  art  ?  The  question  is  easier  than 
the  answer.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  solve  the  problem.  Writers 
on  music,  especially  certain  Germans,  use  these  two  words 
arbitrarily  in  order  to  carry  out  a  pet  theory.  Is  it  not  true 
that  what  we  call  romantic  to-day  may,  in  the  course  of  time, 
become  classical  ?  These  terms  as  applied  to  music  do  not 
bear  the  same  clear  interpretation  as  in  literature,  except  in 
so  far  as  the  musical  drama  is  concerned.  The  extravagant 
and  imaginative  tales  and  poems  of  the  Middle  Ages,  in  which 


SCHUBERT  303 

the  supernatural  world  of  enchantment  and  magic  mingled  with 
real  life,  are  called  romantic,  as  opposed  to  the  antique  sim- 
plicity and  harmony  of  design  and  the  avoidance  of  extrava- 
gance that  characterize  Greek  tragedy.  The  same  standard 
does  not  apply  to  music.  It  may  be  said  that  all  music  is 
classical  which  reaches  the  highest  standard  of  beauty,  as 
expressed  in  symmetrical  form  and  purity  of  feeling.  Accord- 
ing to  this  definition  the  music  of  Schubert,  Schumann,  and 
others  of  the  so-called  romantic  school  is  truly  classical.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  of  Bach's  classical  music  is  romantic. 
Music  which  seems  strange  at  first  may  soon  fascinate  us  by 
its  beauty  and  charm,  and  may  awaken  associations  that  recall 
the  past.  Music  full  of  surprises  and  undreamed-of  effects, 
holding  us  spellbound  and  entranced,  may  well  be  termed 
romantic.  And  this  is  what  characterizes  Schubert's  music. 

"  So  careless  of  fame  was  Schubert,"  says  John  Fiske,  "  so  Discovery 
suddenly  did  death  seize  him,  and  so  little  did  the  world  sus-  known 
pect  the  untold  wealth  of  music  written  upon  musty  sheets  of  works 
paper  tucked  away  in  sundry  old  drawers  and  cupboards  in 
Vienna,  that  much  has  remained  unknown  until  the  present 
day.    As  from  time  to  time  new  songs,  sonatas,  trios,  or  sym- 
phonies were  brought  to  light,  a  witty  French  journalist  began 
to  utter  doubts  of  their  genuineness  and  to  scoff  at  the  '  posthu- 
mous diligence  of  the  song  writer  Schubert.' '     The  world 
owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Sir  George  Grove  for  collecting 
and  editing  many  of  these  long-neglected  manuscripts.    At  the 
end  of  his  exhaustive  article  on  Schubert  he  gives  a  complete 
chronological  catalogue  of  Schubert's  works. 

Time  is  a  merciless  critic  and  sifts  the  chaff  from  the 
wheat.  It  is  the  cruel  fate  of  most  composers,  even  the  great- 
est, to  have  the  larger  part  of  their  works  ultimately  shelved. 
Handel's  forty  operas  are  forgotten  and  more  than  half  his 
oratorios  are  rarely  performed.  Out  of  Haydn's  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  symphonies  only  a  dozen  or  so  are  now  heard 
in  the  concert  hall ;  the  same  proportion  holds  for  his  string 


304  THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 

quartets.  Not  a  third  of  Mozart's  works  can  be  said  to 
live.  Mendelssohn,  Spohr,  von  Weber,  Brahms,  Rubinstein, 
Dvorak,  Tschaikowsky,  and  all  other  modern  masters  are 
subject  to  the  law  of  the  "survival  of  the  fittest."  Beethoven 
alone  has  stood  the  test  of  time.  Very  few  of  his  composi- 
tions are  weak  and  insignificant ;  most  of  them  are  immortal, 
like  Shakespeare's. 

Schubert's  eleven  hundred  works  share  the  common  lot. 
The  greater  part  are  interesting  only  as  the  product  of  a  genius 
who  wrote  too  much  in  his  short  lifetime.  Yet  no  composer 
has  created  so  many  beautiful  and  ideal  songs  as  Schubert,  and 
no  one  except  Beethoven  has  surpassed  him  in  the  quality  of 
a  few  of  his  last  instrumental  works,  —  the  C  major  symphony, 
"  Unfinished  Symphony,"  the  quartets  in  G  and  D  minor,  the 
quintet  in  C,  and  the  octet  in  F.  Other  noble  compositions 
are  the  piano  trios  in  B  b  and  E  I?,  the  piano  sonata  in  A  minor, 
"  Moments  musicals,"  impromptus,  fantasias,  dances,  marches 
for  piano,  overture  and  entr'acte  music  to  "  Rosamunde," 
overtures  to  "  Fierabras  "  and  "Alphonso  und  Estrella." 

Before  he  died  Schubert  was  attracted  more  and  more  to 
the  large  forms  of  instrumental  music  ;  if  he  had  lived  twenty 
years  longer,  no  doubt  he  would  have  created  symphonies  and 
quartets  that  would  have  excelled  all  he  had  accomplished 
before.  But  alas  !  he  was  cut  off  untimely  before  he  reached 
the  climax  of  his  artistic  development.  If  he  had  lived  to  com- 
plete his  full  span  of  years,  he  would  have  more  than  fulfilled 
the  glorious  hopes  expressed  in  the  line  chiseled  on  his 
tombstone  :  "  Here  lies  buried  a  rich  treasure  but  still  more 
glorious  hopes."  Yet  though  this  ideal  destiny  was  not 
realized,  let  us  be  thankful  for  the  rich  treasure  he  left.  As 
a  song  composer  he  is  supreme,  and  as  an  inspired  poet  of 
the  symphony  there  is  only  one  who  surpassed  him.  Within 
a  few  short  years  he  created  masterpieces  which  will  never 
grow  old,  but  will  always  live  among  the  noblest  works  of 
art,  and  bloom  in  coming  ages  with  perennial  youth. 


INDEX 


Abbatini,  87 

Abel,  no 

Absurdities,  musical,  of  the  eighteenth 

century,  149 
Abyngdon,  no 
Agostini,  87 
Agricola,  Alexander,  74 
Agricola,  Martin,  106 
Albas  (aubades),  56 
Albert,  Heinrich,  109,  189 
Alcuin's  system  of  modes,  33 
Allegri,  Gregorio,  87,  138 
Amadori,  161 
Amati    family,  —  Andrea,     Antonio, 

Geronimo,  Nicolo,  203 
Ambrosian  chants,  28;  hymns,  27 
Anerio,  87 
Anet,  Baptiste,  209 
Animuccia,  81,  87 
Antiphonal  singing,  26 
Antiphonary,  the,  30 
Arcadelt,  75,  81,  93 
Aria,  the  da  capo,  140 
Aristoxenus,  1 1 
Armonie,  56 

Artusi,  Giovanni  Maria,  133 
Astorga,  Emanuele  d',  154 
Augustine  sent  to  England,  37 
Aulos  (double  pipe),  17 

Bach  family,  heredity  of  genius  in,  233 

Bach,  Johann  Christian,  234 

Bach,    Johann    Christoph    Friedrich, 

234 

Bach,  Karl  Philipp  Emanuel,  234; 
visit  of  Burney  to,  235 ;  his  compo- 
sitions, 235 

Bach,  Sebastian,  216;  early  years, 
216;  positions  held  by,  217;  visit 
to  Potsdam,  217;  contrasted  with 


Handel,  218,  220;  simplicity  of  his 
character,  219;  delay  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  genius,  226 ;  the  highest 
representative  of  Protestant  church 
music,  227  ;  as  a  contrapuntist,  229 ; 
his  compositions,  230 ;  "  The  Well- 
Tempered  Clavichord,"  231  ;  influ- 
ence of  the  work  of,  232 ;  organ  com- 
positions, 233  ;  pupils  of,  233 

Bach,  Wilhelm  Friedemann,  234 

Baillot,  209 

Baj,  153 

Baltzar,  209 

Banester,  1 10 

Barbiton,  15 

Bardi,  Giovanni,  126 

Barre,  Si,  82 

Bassoon,  211 

Bateson,  115 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  van,  266;  early 
training,  266 ;  association  with  the 
von  Breuning  family,  267 ;  life  at 
Vienna,  267 ;  period  of  despond- 
ency, 268 ;  political  ideas,  269 ; 
1800-1815,  269;  "Heroic  Sym- 
phony," 269 ;  lawsuit  with  his 
brother's  widow,  270 ;  last  years, 
271;  appearance  and  character, 
271;  love  of  the  country,  272; 
deafness,  272;  originality  and  inde- 
pendence, 273  ;  periods  of  develop- 
ment, 274  ;  motive  building,  274 ; 
contrasts  in  themes  and  passages, 
275 ;  character  of  his  work,  275  ; 
orchestration,  276 ;  instruments, 
276 ;  the  symphonies,  277 ;  the 
"Choral  Symphony,"  278;  vocal 
compositions,  279 ;  "  Fidelio,"  279 ; 
the  "  Mass  in  D,"  280  ;  contempo- 
rary criticism,  281 ;  estimate  of,  282 


305 


306 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Benda,  209 

Benevoli,  Orazio,  87,  138 

Bennet,  John,  115 

Berghem,  van,  74,  81 

Bernabei,  Giuseppe  Ercole,  87,  138 

Bernacchi,  Antonio,  158,  160,  161 

Bemhard  the  German,  91,  192,  193 

Berthaume,  209 

Bettini,  81 

Beverini,  Francesco,  122 

Beza,  Theodore,  107 

Biber,  Franz  Heinrich,  209 

Binchois,  65 

Biterolf,  58 

Boehm,  210 

Bononcini,  Giovanni,  141,  154;  rivalry 

with  Handel,  155 
Bononcini,  Giovanni  Maria,  155 
Boucher,  209 
Braga,  Council  of,  28 
Brasart,  65 
Brown,  no 
Brumel,  74 
Bugle,  2ii 

Bull,  Dr.  John,  114,  198 
Bull,  Ole,  210 
Burgk,  Joachim  a,  107,  120 
Busnois,  70 
Buus,  Jacob,  193 
Buxtehude,  Dietrich,  194 
Byrd,  William,  112,  198 

Caccini,  Giulio,  126,  127,  158,  160 

Cafaro,  148 

Caffarelli,  161,  162;  his  extraordinary 

training  in  singing,  162 
Caldara,  Antonio,  142,  152 
Calvin,  197 
Calvisius,  Seth,  107 
Cannabich,  209 
Canon,  definitions  of,  67 
Canso,  56 

Cantata,  136;  secular,  139 
Cantilena,  49 
Cantors,  108 
Cantus  firmus,  30 
Cantus  planus,  27 
Canzone,  194 ;  organ,  of  Gabrieli,  97 


Capriccio,  193 

Carestini  (Cusanino),  160,  161,  162 

Carey,  Henry,  180 

Carissimi,  Giacomo,  87,  135,  136,  160 

Carlani,  161 

Caron,  70 

Carpentras,  8l 

Castrati,  80 

Causton,  in 

Cavalieri,  Emilio  de',  127 

Cavalli  (Francesco  Caletti-Bruni),  132, 

135 

Certon,  75 

Cesti,  Marco  Antonio,  132,  135 

Chambonnieres,  199 

Chelys,  16 

Chiphonie,  56 

Chitarrone,  210 

Choir,  Papal,  79 ;  double  of  St.  Mark's, 
91 ;  artistic  singing,  104 

Chorals,  101 ;  famous  German,  103; 
change  in  form  of  melodies  of,  103 

Church  music,  earliest,  25 ;  ornate 
style  of  early,  26 ;  improvements  in, 
137;  comparison  of  early  Protes- 
tant with  Roman  and  Venetian, 
100;  soprano  and  contralto  parts 
sung  by  boys  and  falsetto  singers, 
158;  cantata,  136;  concerto,  126 

Cifra,  87 

Cimarosa,  148 

Cithara,  16 

Clari,  Giovanni  Carlo  Maria,  154 

Clarinet,  211,  212 

Clavichord,  195;  systems  of  finger- 
ing, 199;  masters  of,  198,  199 

Clavier  suite,  199 

Clayton,  Thomas,  180 

Clemens  non  Papa,  74 

Clementi,  "Gradus  ad  Parnassum," 
284 

Cobbold,  115 

Coclicus,  Adrian,  74 

Colonna,  Giovanni  Paolo,  154 

Compere,  74 

Concerto,  213  ;  church,  126 ;  concertos, 
Mozart's  piano,  262 

Conductus,  49 


INDEX 


307 


Conti,  Francesco,  154 

Contrapunto,  194 

Corelli,  Arcangelo,  87,  205 

Cornet,  211 

Cornyshe,  1 10 

Corteccia,  Francesco,  124 

Coucy,  Chatelaine  de,  57 

Counterpoint,  derivation  of  the  word, 
35 ;  ancients  ignorant  of,  40 ;  oldest 
examples  of,  41;  florid,  47;  first 
experiments  in,  by  northern  musi- 
cians, 63 

Couperin  family,  —  Louis,  Fran£ois, 
Charles,  Francois  (son  of  Charles), 
198 

Cramer,  Johann  Baptist,  284 

Crequillon,  74 

Crwth  or  crowd,  201 

Cuzzoni,  Francesca,  160,  164 

Dances,  —  allemande,  anglaise, 
bourree,  bransle,  chaconne,  cou- 
rante,  gavotte,  giga  (gigue),  horn- 
pipe, minuet,  passacaglia,  passepied, 
polonaise,  rigadon,  sarabande,  si- 
ciliano,  200 

Dankerts,  81 

David,  Ferdinand,  210 

Davy,  no 

De  Beriot,  210 

Dietrich,  74,  106 

Discantus,  47  ;  improvised,  51 

Discords,  Franco's  classification  of, 
49;  Monte verde's  use  of,  133 

Dowland,  John,  114 

Ducis,  106 

Dufay,  Guillaume,  65 

Dulcimer,  197 

Duni,  his  introduction  of  the  operetta 
to  Paris,  174 

Dunstable,  John,  65,  no 

Durante,  Francesco,  141 ;  his  addi- 
tions to  the  orchestra,  142 

Dussek,  284 

Dygon,  no 

Eccard,  Johann,  108 ;  festival  songs 
of,  109 


Edwards,  no,  in 

Ekkehard,  38 

Elizabeth,   Queen  of  England,   in; 

her  "Virginal  Book,"  113 
Eloy,  65 
England,   music   in,    no;  cultivation 

of  counterpoint  in,  no 
English  madrigals,  115 
Epigonion,  16 
Ernst,  210 

Eschenbach,  Wolfram  von,  58 
Escobedo,  80 
Este,  Michael,  115 
Etheridge,  1 10 

Fabri,  161 

Faenza,  161 

Fagotto,  211 

Faidit,  Gaucelm,  57 

Fantasia,  194 

Farina,  205 

Farinelli  (Carlo  Broschi),  158,  161, 
165;  his  invitation  to  Madrid,  165; 
his  prudence  and  modesty,  166 

Faugues,  65 

Faustina  Bordoni,  156,  163 

Fauxbourdon,  51 

Fayrfax,  no 

Feo,  Francesco,  142 

Ferrabosco,  81,  82 

Ferri,  Baldassare,  159 

Festa,  Costanzo,  80 

Field,  284 

Finck,  Heinrich,  106 

Flute,  —  flute  a  bee  (block  flute), 
traverse,  210 

Fontana,  205 

Ford,  115 

Fornsete,  John  of,  no 

Forster,  103 

Franco  of  Cologne,  48,  63 ;  his  classi- 
fication of  harmonic  intervals,  48 

Frescobaldi,  Girolamo,  194 

Frestele,  56 

Froberger,  Johann  Jakob,  194,  198 

Frottola,  78 

Fuga,  67  ;  fugue,  194 

Fux,  Johann  Joseph,  155 


308 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Gabrieli,  Andrea,  95,  193 

Gabrieli,  Giovanni,  96,  193 ;  his  com- 
positions for  two,  three,  and  four 
choruses,  96 ;  his  free  use  of  instru- 
ments, 97  ;  compared  with  Bach,  98 

Gafor  (Gaferius),  76 

Galilei,  Vincenzo,  126,  127 

Galliculus,  119 

Galuppi,  Baldassare,  152,  153 

Gamut,  the,  45 

Gasparini,  87,  153 

Gavinies,  209 

Geige,  201 

Geminiani,  207 

Genet,  74 

Germany,  music  in,  99 ;  German  words 
sung  in  churches  of,  101  ;  Italian 
opera  in,  155 

Gese,  Bartholomaus,  108 

Giardini,  207 

Gibbons,  Orlando,  116,  198 

Gigue,  56 

Gluck,  Cristoph  Wilibald,  Ritter  von, 
birth  and  early  training  of,  245 ;  visits 
to  London  and  Paris,  246 ;  visit  to 
Rome,  246 ;  reforms  in  the  opera, 
247;  "  Alceste,"  247  ;  the  invitation 
to  Paris,  248  ;  rivalry  with  Piccinni, 
249 ;  "  Iphigenie  en  Tauride,"  250 ; 
his  music  superior  to  his  librettos, 
250 ;  masterly  treatment  of  recita- 
tive and  chorus,  251 ;  orchestral 
effects,  252 

Gombert,  Nicolaus,  74 

Goodendag,  Johannes,  70 

Gossec,  174,  212 

Goudimel,  Claude,  75 ;  teacher  of 
Palestrina,  81  ;  his  music  to  the 
Psalms,  107 

Graun,  Johann  Gottlieb,  206,  209 

Graun,  Karl  Heinrich,  156 

Greco,  Gaetano,  141,  142 

Greek  music,  4 ;  periods  of  develop- 
ment of,  5  ;  vocal,  6 ;  instrumental, 
7 ;  nomos,  6 ;  tetrachord,  8  ;  scales, 
8 ;  names  of  notes,  1 1 ;  perfect  sys- 
tem, 12;  transposition  of  scales,  12  ; 
harmony,  13;  melody,  14;  extant 


fragments  of,  14;  instruments,  15;  or- 
chestral, 20 ;  character  of  modes,  21 

Gregorian  music,  28 ;  specimen  of, 
31  ;  introduced  into  England,  Ger- 
many, and  France,  37 

Gregory  the  Great,  29 

Gretry,  174 

Guarducci,  161 

Guarneri  family,  —  Andrea,  Guiseppe, 
Pietro,  203 ;  Pietro  (Peter  of  Venice), 
Giuseppe  (Joseph),  204 

Guamerii,  70 

Guido  of  Arezzo,  44  ;  new  method  of 
teaching  music,  44 ;  his  notation,  45 

Gyrowetz,  Adalbert,  284 

Hale,  Adam  de  la,  52,  57,  63 ;  "  Robin 
and  Marion,"  120 

Hamboys,  no 

Hammerschmidt,  Andreas,  189 

Handel,  George  Frederick,  214;  early 
years,  214;  at  Hamburg,  184,  215; 
quarrel  with  Mattheson,  184;  visit 
to  Italy,  185,  215;  director  of 
music  at  the  Haymarket,  London, 
215;  contest  with  the  singers,  215; 
the  rival  opera,  216;  retirement, 
216;  contrasted  with  Bach,  218, 
220;  operas,  221,  225;  oratorios, 
216,  221,  223;  subjects  of  his  ora- 
torios, 224;  importance  of  the 
chorus  in  oratorios,  225;  orchestral 
works,  226;  "The  Messiah,"  222 

Handl,  Jacob  (Gallus),  107 

Harmonic  intervals,  rules  for,  50 

Harmony,  Greek  definition  of,  13 ; 
first  attempts  at,  41 

Harp,  56 

Harpsichord,  197 

Hasler,  Hans  Leo  von,  108 

Hasse,  Johann  Adolph,  139,  156;  his 
connection  with  Dresden  opera,  156 

Haydn,  Franz  Joseph,  236;  self- 
taught,  236 ;  chapelmaster  to  Prince 
Esterhazy,  237  ;  his  trip  to  England, 
238 ;  compositions,  238  ;  inventor 
of  the  modern  symphony,  239;  treat- 
ment of  the  theme,  240;  analysis 


INDEX 


309 


of  the  symphony,  241  ;  influence  on 
instrumental  music,  242 ;  creator 
of  the  string  quartet,  243 ;  piano 
sonatas,  243 

Heath,  in 

Hellmesberger,  210 

Henry  VIII,  no 

Hermann,  Nicolaus,  107 

Hieronymus  de  Moravia,  50,  63 

Hilton,  115 

Hobrecht.    See  Obrecht 

Hofhaimer,  Paul,  193 

Holzbauer,  209 

Hoquetus  (ochetus),  49 

Horn,  2ii 

Hucbald,  41,  63  ;  his  improvements  in 
notation,  43 ;  his  changes  in  names 
of  church  modes,  44 

Hummel,  284 

Hydraulos,  19 

Hykaert,  70 

Instruments,  stringed,  129,210;  bowed 
stringed,  200,  201  ;  keyed  stringed, 
195,  196,  197;  wind,  129,  142,  210, 
211  ;  the  organ,  19,  43,  134,  210; 
Greek,  15;  of  jongleurs,  56 

Isidor,  41 

Italy,  debt  of  music  to,  186 

Jannequin,  Clement,  75 

Joachim,  210 

Johnson,  no,  in 

Jommelli,  Nicola,  141, 142,  145;  chap- 

elmaster  at  Stuttgart,  146;  rivalry 

with  Terradellas,  146 
Jongleurs,  55  ;  instruments  of,  56 
Josquin  de  Pres,  70 ;  significance  of 

his  work,  71  ;  his  defects,  72;  his 

merits,  73 ;  his  compositions,  74 

Keiser,  Reinhard,  182 

Kerl,  Johann  Kaspar,  155,  194 

Kettledrums,  212 

Kirbye,  115 

Kircher,  Athanasius,  14,  67 

Knaust,  103 

Knight,  in 


Kozeluch,  284 

Kuhnau,  Johann,  200 

Kusser,  director  at  Hamburg,  182 

Labeo,  38 

Lahoussaye,  209 

Landino,  Francesco,  52,  91,  192 

Lasso,  Orlando  (Roland  de  Lattre), 
87 ;  chapelmaster  at  St.  John 
Lateran,  88 ;  honors  and  titles,  88  ; 
compositions,  89,  119;  cosmopol- 
itan character  of  his  works,  89 ;  crit- 
icism and  praise,  90 

Laub,  Ferdinand,  210 

Lawes,  Henry,  122,  177 

Leclair,  Jean  Marie,  209 

Legrenzi,  Giovanni,  152 

Le  Maistre,  Matthieu,  107 

Leo,  Leonardo,  141,  142,  160 

Lines  to  indicate  pitch,  36 ;  number 
fixed  at  four  by  Guido,  45;  colored, 

45 

Lipinski,  210 

Locatelli,  Pietro,  207 

Locke,  Matthew,  177  ;  his  music  to 
Shakespeare's  Macbeth,  178 

Logroscino,  Niccolo,  opera  buffa,  144 ; 
opera  finale,  147 

"  L'omme  arme,"  69 

Lossius,  Lucas,  108 

Lotti,  Antonio,  141,  152 

Lully,  Jean  Baptiste,  169,  198;  di- 
rector of  the  opera  at  Paris,  170; 
his  character,  170;  attention  to 
stage  effects,  171  ;  gives  a  definite 
form  to  the  overture,  172;  his*  as- 
sociation with  Quinault,  170 

Lute,  210 

Luther,  Martin,  99 

Lutheran  church  music,  sources  of, 
100;  twofold  character  of,  104 

Luzzasco,  123 

Lyre,  18;  peasant's,  56 

Machault,  Guillaume  de,  52,  63 
Madrial  (madrigal),  79;  development 

of  the,  93 ;  sacred,  93 ;  Gabrieli's, 

97;  the  English,  115 


3io 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Magadis,  16 

Maggini,  202 

Mahu,  74,  108 

Maillard,  75 

Majo,  Francesco  di,  148 

Mancini,  161 

Manelli,  Francesco,  132 

Marbeck,  no 

Marcello,  Benedetto,  141,  150,  152, 
153  ;  "Theater  of  Fashion,"  150 

Marchettus  of  Padua,  50 

Marenzio,  Luca,  87 

Marini,  205 

Marot,  Clement,  107 

Masques,  121 ;  description  of  Italian, 
121 ;  popularity  of,  in  England, 
122;  the  music  of,  122 

Mastersingers,  59 ;  officers  and  rules 
of,  60 

Mattheson,  Johann,  184 ;  his  versa- 
tility of  talent,  184;  quarrel  with 
Handel,  184;  books  on  music,  184 

Mazzocchi,  Domenico,  87,  159 

Mazzocchi,  Virgilio,  87 

Melisma,  26,  28 

Mensural  music,  48 

Merula,  205 

Merulo,  Claudio,  95,  193 

Messanze  (quodlibets),  72 

Metastasio,  influence  of,  151 ;  defects 
of  his  opera  texts,  151 

Meyer,  74 

Milton,  John,  115 

Minelli,  161 

Minnesingers,  58 ;  specimen  of  song 
of,  58 

Minstrels,  55 ;  organization  of,  55 ; 
traveling,  61 

Miracle  plays,  118  ;  the  stage  used  in, 
118 

Modes,  significance  of  Greek,  21  ; 
early  church,  32;  authentic  and 
plagal,  32 ;  correspondence  of 
Greek  and  church,  34 ;  names 
changed  by  Hucbald,  44 

Molique,  210 

Monochord,  the,  45,  195 

Monody,  the,  126 


Monte,  De,  74 

Monteverde,  Claudio,  132,  133;  oppo- 
sition to,  133  ;  operas,  133  ;  services 
to  music,  134 ;  analysis  of  "  Orfeo," 

'34 

Morales,  80 

Morley,  Thomas,  115 

Motet  (motetus),  49 ;  text  of,  69 

Mouton,  74 

Mozart,  Leopold,  his  violin  school,  207 

Mozart,  Wolfgang  Amadeus,  253 ; 
early  evidences  of  genius,  253  ;  the 
tour  of  the  capitals  of  Europe,  253  ; 
first  operas,  254 ;  universality  of 
his  talents,  255;  attempts  to  estab- 
lish himself  at  Mannheim  and  Paris, 
255 ;  performance  of  the  "  Ido- 
meneo"  at  Munich,  256;  establish- 
ment at  Vienna  and  marriage,  257  ; 
concerts,  257;  his  character,  258; 
method  of  composing,  259 ;  poverty, 
258 ;  mastery  of  every  kind  of  com- 
position, 260  ;  as  an  instrumental 
composer,  261 ;  instrumental  works, 
261 ;  piano  concertos,  262  ;  preemi- 
nence in  dramatic  music,  262  ;  union 
of  dramatic  expression  and  melody, 
263 ;  Otto  Jahn's  estimate  of,  264 

Muff  at,  199 

Mundy,  John,  115 

Muris,  Johannes  de,  50,  63 

Muse,  56 

Music,  antiquity  of,  3  ;  earliest,  vocal, 
4  ;  of  the  spheres,  20  ;  descriptive, 
19,  75;  mensural,  48;  in  England, 
no;  in  France,  75,  168;  in  Ger- 
many, 99 ;  in  Italy,  78 ;  in  the 
Netherlands,  63 

Nanini,  81,  87 

Nardini,  206,  207 

Neri,  205  ;  distinction  between  church 

and  chamber  sonata,  205 
Netherlands,  music  in  the,  63 ;  four 

epochs  in  musical  history  of,  64; 

influence  on   other  countries,  75; 

influence  on  Venetian  music,  92 
Neuma  notation,  35 


INDEX 


Newark,  no 

Nomos,  6;  instrumental,  19 

Notation,    Greek,    34 ;    neuma,    35 ; 

improved  by  Romanus,   36 ;    lines, 

37 ;  Guido's,  45 

Notes,  mensural,  48  ;  notae  ligatae,  48 
Notker  Balbulus,  38 

Oboe,  211,  213;  di  caccia,  213;  Eng- 
lish horn,  213 

Obrecht,  Jakob,  70,  119 

Ochetus,  49 

Ockenheim,  Johannes,  66 ;  his  canons, 
67 ;  character  of  music  of  his  time,  68 

Oclande,  in 

Octachord,  9;  of  Pythagoras,  10; 
conjunct  and  disjunct,  9 

Odington,  Walter,  50,  63 

Oeglin,  103 

Ofterdingen,  Heinrich  von,  58 

Olympus,  Dorian  scale  of,  8 

Opera,  beginning  of,  125  ;  comparison 
of,  with  Greek  tragedy,  1 30 ;  first 
performance  of,  128;  first,  outside 
of  Italy,  188;  first  public  perform- 
ance of,  132;  opposition  to,  132; 
development  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 149;  in  England,  176;  under 
Italian  influence,  176;  obstructed 
by  Puritanism,  176;  German,  at 
Hamburg,  181 ;  deterioration  of, 
183;  Italian,  at  Hamburg,  186; 
analysis  of  Monteverde's  "  Orf eo," 
134;  chorus  of,  131 

Opera  brt/a,  144,  147,  173  ;  in  France, 

i?3 

Oratorio,  136,  221,  224;  compared 
with  passion  music,  228 

Orchestra,  Greek,  20 ;  Gabrieli's,  97  ; 
of  the  early  opera,  1 29 ;  of  the  time 
of  Monteverde,  134,  212;  of  the 
time  of  Scarlatti,  212;  of  Bach  and 
Handel,  212  ;  modern,  213 

Organ,  43,  190;  developed  from  the 
hydraulos,  190 ;  description  of  early, 
191 ;  the  keys  and  keyboard,  191 ; 
mixtures,  191 ;  pedal,  192 ;  com- 
pass extended,  192;  of  St.  Mark's, 


91  ;  at  Winchester,  191  ;  organo  di 
legno,  210;  positive,  210;  regal, 
210;  early  mode  of  playing  on,  191 

Organ  music,  names  of  pieces,  97, 
193,  194,  195 

Organists,  famous,  192,  193,  194 

Organum,  42,  47  ;  purum,  49 

Otger  or  Odo,  41 

Overture,  given  its  definite  form  by 
Lully,  172 

Pachelbel,  Johann,  194 

Paganini,  Nicolo,  208 ;  technical  fea- 
tures of  his  playing,  208 

Pagin,  209 

Paisiello,  Giovanni,  141,  142,  148 

Palestrina  (Giovanni  Pierluigi),  81  ; 
expulsion  from  Papal  Choir,  82 ; 
his  "  Improperia,"  82  ;  chapelmas- 
terof  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,82;  the 
three  masses,  83 ;  his  productivity, 
84";  significance  of  his  work,  84; 
estimates  of  his  music,  85 ;  analysis 
of  his  art,  86 

Pan's  pipe,  19 

Papal  Choir,  79 ;  composed  of  differ- 
ent nationalities,  80 ;  training  of, 

159 

Paradies,  148 
Parrabosco,  95,  193 
Parsons,  no 
Pasi,  Antonio,  161 
Pasquini,  Bernardo,  87,  141,  194 
Passion  music,  119;  comparison  with 

oratorio,  228 
Pasticcio,  the,  149 
Paumann,  Conrad,  193 
Peasant's  lyre,  56 
Perez,  Davide,  148 
Pergolesi,    Giovanni    Battista,     144; 

"  La  serva  padrona,"  144  ;  attempt 

to  write  serious  opera,  145 
Peri,  Jacopo,  128 
Petrucci,  Ottaviano  dei,  inventor  of 

music  printing,  76 
Phelyppes,  Sir  John,  no 
Phorminx,  16 
Pianoforte,  197 


312 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Piccini,  Nicola,  141,   142,  147;  opera 

buffa,  147 
Pisendel,  209 
Pistocchi,    Francesco   Antonio,    158, 

160 

Pitoni,  87,  142,  153 
Plato,  opinion  of  Greek  music,  21 
Pleyel,  Ignaz  Joseph,  283 
Popular  airs,  61.    See  Volkslied 
Porpora,  Niccol6,  141,  142,  158,  160; 

method  of  teaching   singing,  163 ; 

fondness  for  the  shake,  143 
Porta,  94 
Positive,  211 

Praetorius,  Hieronymus,  107 
Praetorius,  Jacob,  107 
Praetorius,  Michael,  109 
Preludium,  194 
Printing  of  music,  76 
Psalterion,  15 
Psaltery,  196 
Pugnani,  207 
Punctum,  35 

Purcell,  Henry,  178;  his  dramatic  ex- 
cellence, 179;  creator  of  English 

secular  music,  179 
Pythagoras,    9 ;    octachord    of,     10 ; 

monochord  of,  45,  195 

Quanz,  139 
Quartet,  string,  243 

Raaf,  Anton,  161 

Rameau,  Jean  Philippe,  172;  his 
merits  as  a  composer,  173;  in- 
fluenced by  his  Italian  studies,  173 

Ratpert,  38 

Ravanastram,  201 

Rebab,  201 

Rebec,  56,  201 

Recitative,  Greek,  6, 130;  a  new  form 
of,  136;  modern,  128;  obligate  ac- 
companied, 140 

Redford,  no,  in 

Reformation,  effect  on  music,  99 

Regal,  210 

Regis,  70 

Reinken,  Johann  Adam,  194 


Resinarius,  106,  119 

Rhau,  1 06 

Ricercare,  194 

"  Robin  and  Marion,"  description  of, 

120] 

Rode,  209 

Romanus,  monk  of  St.  Gall,  36,  38 
Romberg,  Andreas,  283 
Romberg,  Bernhard,  283 
Rome,  music  of  ancient,  23 ;    Greek 

music  at,  24 
Rondellus,  49 

Rore,  Cipriano  de,  94,  119, 193 
Rosenmiiller,  Johann,  189 
Rota,  56 
Rotte,  201 
Rue,  De  la,  74 
Rupf,  Conrad,  105 

Sacchini,  Antonio  Maria  Gaspare,  142, 
148 

Sachs,  Hans,  60 

Saintwix,  no 

Salinas,  Francesco,  80 

Sal6,  Gasparo  di,  202 

Salomo,  38 

Salteire,  56 

Sambuca  (sambyke),  16,  56 

Sammartini,  213 

Sarasate,  210 

Sarri,  148 

Scales,  Greek,  8;  the  nine  octave 
groups,  9 

Scandellus,  Antonius,  107,  120 

Scarlatti,  Alessandro,  138,  158,  160, 
199;  his  versatility  and  industry, 
139;  influence  on  opera,  140 

Scarlatti,  Domenico,  140,  199,  200; 
his  "  Cat's  Fugue,"  200 

Scheidemann,  David,  107 

Scheidt,  Samuel,  194 

Schein,  Johann  Hermann,  189 

Schlick,  Arnold,  193 

Schoffer,  103 

Schreiber,  Heinrich,  58 

Schubert,  Franz  Peter,  285  ;  early 
training,  285  ;  the  school  orches- 
tra, 286 ;  early  compositions,  287  ; 


INDEX 


313 


school-teaching,  287 ;  friendship 
with  Johann  Mayrhofer  and  Franz 
von  Schober,  288;  extraordinary 
productivity,  288  ;  method  of  com- 
posing, 289 ;  public  recognition, 
290;  the  "  Schubertiaden,"  291; 
despondency,  292  ;  romance,  293  ; 
poverty,  294 ;  last  compositions, 
295  ;  the  "  Tenth  Symphony,"  per- 
formed at  Leipzig,  295 ;  Schu- 
mann's praise  of,  296,  300 ;  last  ill- 
ness and  death,  297 ;  appearance 
and  character,  298 ;  preeminence  as 
a  song  composer,  299 ;  genius  in 
adapting  music  to  poetry,  300 ;  his 
method  of  work  compared  with 
that  of  Beethoven,  301  ;  instrumen- 
tation, 301 ;  characterization  of  his 
music,  302 ;  discovery  of  unknown 
works,  303 ;  works  on  which  his 
fame  rests,  304 

Schiitz,  Heinrich,  120,  181,  187; 
chapelmaster  at  Dresden,  187  ;  first 
to  introduce  opera  into  Germany, 
187 ;  compositions,  188 

Scotus  Erigena,  41 

Scribano,  80 

Secular  music,  53 ;  melodies  lost  for 
lack  of  system  of  notation,  54 ; 
used  as  a  basis  for  masses  and 
motets,  68;  modern,  not  adapted 
to  worship,  102  ;  the  mission  of, 

125 

Secular  musical  drama,  120 
Semeiography,  34 
Senesino  (Francesco  Bernardi),  158, 

160,  161,  162 
Senfl,  Ludwig,  106 
Sequence  (prosa),  38 
Serenas,  56 
Serpent,  211 
Shawm,  211 
Shepherd,  in 
Sheppard,  no 
Sheryngham,  no 
Simicon,  15 
Singing,    antiphonal,    26;     Caccini's 

"  Nuove  musiche,"  160 ;  superiority 


of  the  Italian  school  of,  158 ;  train- 
ing of  the  Papal  Choir  in,  159; 
Pistocchi's  school  at  Bologna,  160; 
the  composer  the  slave  of  the 
virtuoso,  161  ;  solo  singing  a  lost 
art  in  the  eighteenth  century,  123; 
attempts  to  restore,  124 

Sirventes,  56 

Smearton,  no 

Solmization,  46 

Somis,  207 

Sonata,  200 ;  da  camera,  200,  205 ; 
dei  balled,  200;  da  chiesa,  200, 
205 

Songs,  names  of,  49,  56,  78,  93,  101 ; 
old  German,  peculiarly  adapted  to 
religious  worship,  102 

Sparta,  music  at,  22 

Spinet,  196 

Spohr,  Ludwig,  210 

Squarcialuppi,  Antonio,  193 

Stamitz,  209 

Steffani,  Agostino,  87,  141,  153 

Steibelt,  284 

Sterkel,  284 

Steuerlein,  Johann,  107 

Stobaus,  Johann,  109 

Stoltzer,  74,  106 

Stradella,  Alessandro,  137 

Stradivari,  Antonio,  204 

Sweelinck,  Jan  Pieters,  194 

Symphony,  213,  239,  261,  277,  295; 
analysis  of  Haydn's,  240 

"  Syntagma  musicum "  of  Michael 
Praetorius,  109 

Syrinx,  19 

Tallis,  Thomas,  112 

Tartini,  Giuseppe,  206 ;  the  "  Devil's 

Trill,"  207 
Taverner,  no 
Telemann,  Georg  Philipp,  director  of 

the  Hamburg  opera,  186 
Tenso,  56 
Terpander,  9 
Terradellas,  142 
Tesi,  Vittoria,  163 
Testwood,  1 10 


THE  HISTORY  OF  MUSIC 


Tetrachord:  diatonic,  chromatic,  en- 
harmonic, 8 ;  Dorian,  Lydian,  Phry- 
gian, 9;  hyper-  and  hypo-,  10 

Theile,  musical  drama  at  Hamburg, 
181 

Theorbo,  210;  Roman,  210 

Thibaut,  king  of  Navarre,  57 

Thomas  School,  108 

Thorne,  no 

Tigellius,  24 

Timosthenes,  descriptive  music  of,  19 

Tinctoris,  Johannes,  70 ;  his  diction- 
ary of  musical  terms,  76 

Toccata,  97,  193 

Tomaschek,  284 

Torelli,  Giuseppe,  205 

Tourte,  Fra^ois,  perfecter  of  the 
bow,  204 

Traetta,  142 

Trombone,  211 

Troubadours,  54  ;  love,  the  subject  of 
their  poetry  and  music,  56 

Trouveres,  57 

Trumpet,  211,  213 

Tuder,  no 

Turges,  no 

Tutilo,  38 

Tye,  Christopher,  in 

Ucellini,  205 
Ugolino,  87 

Valentini,  87 
Vecchi,  123 

Veracini,  Francesco  Maria,  206 
Verdelot,  93 
Vespasius,  103 
Viadana,  Ludovico,  127 
Vielle.    See  Viola 
Vieuxtemps,  210 

Villateau,  his  description  of  Coptic 
music,  29 


Vincentino,  94 

Vinci,  Leonardo,  142,  143 

Viola,  Alessandro  della,  81 

Viola,  Alfonso  della,  94,  122 

Viola,  56,  201  ;  da  gamba  (viola 
bastarda,  lira  da  gamba,  lira  bar- 
barina,  viola  di  bordone  or  baryton, 
viola  d'amore,  viola  pomposa), 
202  ;  viola  da  braccio  (descant-viol, 
violetta,  rebecchino,  violino,  poc- 
chetto),  20 1 

Violin,  202 ;  makers,  202 ;  masters, 
Italian,  206,  Belgian,  210,  French, 
209,  German,  209;  perfection  of 
the  bow,  204 

Viotti,  Giovanni  Battista,  209 

Virga,  35 

Virginal,  197  ;  books  on  the,  113 

Vitali,  Giovanni  Battista,  205 

Vittoria,  87,  120 

Vivaldi,  Antonio,  206 

Vogelweide,  Walther  von  der,  58 

Volkslied,  61 

Vulpius,  Melchior,  107 

Waelrant,  74 
Walther,  Johann,  105 
Walther,  Johann  Jakob,  209 
Ward,  John,  115 
Water  organ.    See  Hydraulos 
Weelkes,  Thomas,  115 
White,  in 
Wieniawski,  210 
Wilbye,  115 

Willaert,  Adrian,  64,  71,  92,  193 
Woelfl,  284 

Women,  not  allowed  to  sing  in  church, 
80 

Zarlino,  Gioseffo,  94,  123 

Zingarelli,  148 

Zwetschin,  Heinrich  von,  58 


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